The DOI matches its Crossref record; 58 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 25 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
We use data on police-involved deaths to estimate how the risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States varies across social groups. We estimate the lifetime and age-specific risks of being killed by police by race and sex. We also provide estimates of the proportion of all deaths accounted for by police use of force. We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course. The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women. Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups. For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.
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Claims the paper makes
44 Own result · 5 Own method · 4 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 4 No basis given · 3 Partly supported · 2 Not checked yet · 2 Own interpretation · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Unofficial media-based methods provide more comprehensive information on police violence than do the limited official data currently available (4,33,34).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Research Strategy and Key Findings
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [4] 4. N. Krieger, J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, M. V. Kiang, J. Feldman, Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS Med. 12, e1001915 (2015). source
The Summary Points report that The Guardian’s unofficial count of people killed by police was twice the number expected from FBI estimates. “Counting for Accountability” says official mortality data likely underreport police killings and lack timely, detailed reporting. The comparison supports the claim for lethal police violence; the paper does not assess nonlethal incidents. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [33] 33. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Quantifying underreporting of law- enforcement-related deaths in United States vital statistics and news-media-based data sources: A capture -recapture analysis. PLoS Med. 14, e1002399 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions and the section ‘Estimates of the number of US law-enforcement-related deaths in 2015’ show that the media-based source The Counted recorded substantially more law-enforcement-related deaths than the official NVSS. The paper studies deaths, however, not police violence generally or nonfatal incidents, so it supports the comparison only for fatal cases. Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While a substantial body of evidence shows that people of color, especially African Americans, are at greater risk for experiencing criminal justice contact and police-involved harm than are whites (14-19)”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. R. Kramer, B. Remster, Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law Soc. Rev. 52, 960-993 (2018). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] 15. R. Brame, M. G. Turner, R. Paternoster, S. D. Bushway, Cumulative prevalence of arrest from ages 8 to 23 in a national sample. Pediatrics 129, 21-27 (2012). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [16] 16. B. Pettit, B. Western, Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69, 151-169 (2004). source
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract says people of color face greater police-involved harm than White people and reports higher police-homicide risk for Black and Latino men than for White men. The paper does not establish the separate claim that people of color face greater risk of criminal justice contact generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [18] 18. A. C. Mooney, S. McConville, A. J. Rappaport, R. Y. Hsia, Association of legal inter- vention injuries with race and ethnicity among patients treated in emergency departments in California. JAMA Network Open 1, e182150-e182150 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report substantially more legal-intervention injuries per capita among Black than white individuals, and the Discussion links much of that difference to higher arrest rates among Black individuals. The paper does not establish greater criminal-justice contact and police-involved harm for people of color generally: it reports substantially lower injury rates for Asian/Pacific Islander individuals and lower injuries per arrest for Hispanic individuals than for white individuals. Its injury findings concern California emergency-department patients, not all forms of police-involved harm. (LLM, conf=0.87)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] 19. D. Knox, W. Lowe, J. Mummolo, The bias is built in: How administrative records mask racially biased policing. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3336338 (April 26, 2019). source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than are white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“This ranks police use of force as one of the leading causes of death for young men.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Risk for all groups peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y and declines with age.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black men are about 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over the life course than are white men.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women's risk of being killed by police use of force is about an order of magnitude lower than men's risk at all ages”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Between the ages of 25 y and 29 y, black men are killed by police at a rate between 2.8 and 4.1 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Asian/Pacific Islander men are killed by police at a rate between 0.3 and 0.6 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.05% of all deaths of Asian/Pacific Islander women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While the methods used in this paper allow for nationally precise age-, race-, and gender-specific mortality estimates, they may mask important subnational variation and changes in risk over time (17,36).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Methods acknowledge that states grouped within the same Census division differ, supporting the concern that geographic grouping may obscure subnational variation. The paper uses data spanning 2012 to early 2018, but the passages do not assess changes in risk over time or say that the methods mask them. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not matchedcites [36] 36. R. E Morgan, G. Kena, Criminal victimization, 2016 (NCJ, 251150, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC, 2017).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Among all groups, black men and boys face the highest lifetime risk of being killed by police.”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Our models predict that about 1 in 1,000 black men and boys will be killed by police over the life course (96 [77, 120] per 100,000).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We estimate that over the life course, at levels of risk similar to those observed between 2013 and 2018, about 52 [39,68] (90% uncertainty interval) of every 100,000 men and boys in the United States will be killed by police use of force over the life course, and about 3 [1.5, 4.5] of every 100,000 women and girls will be killed by police over the life course.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this ratio is strongly correlated with age and race and is starkly unequal across racial groups.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.16% of all deaths of Latina women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both Asian/Pacific Islander men and women are more than 50% less likely to be killed by police than are white men and women, respectively.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police use of force accounts for 0.05% of all male deaths in the United States and 0.003% of all female deaths”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.11% of all deaths of white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Racially unequal exposure to the risk of state violence has profound consequences for public health, democracy, and racial stratification (5,(7)(8)(9)11).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites (5,(7)(8)(9)11)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Prior research suggests that despite high contemporary rates, the risk of being killed by police was higher in decades past (37).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] 37. C. T. Ross, A multi-level Bayesian analysis of racial bias in police shootings at the county-level in the United States, 2011 -2014. PLoS One 10, e0141854 (2015). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The meaning of race, age, and gender for police violence emerges in the interactions between how officers perceive an individual's identity and the salience of these classifications for perceptions of criminality, belonging, and dangerousness (1,10,25,39).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] 1. S. Alang, D. McAlpine, E. McCreedy, R. Hardeman, Police brutality and black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am. J. Public Health 107, 662-665 (2017). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] 10. K. G. Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [25] 25. J. Legewie, M. Schaeffer, Contested boundaries: Explaining where ethnoracial diversity provokes neighborhood conflict. Am. J. Sociol. 122, 125-161 (2016). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] 39. E. P. Monk, The cost of color: Skin color, discrimination, and health among African- Americans. Am. J. Sociol. 121, 396-444 (2015). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43,44).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] 43. L. W. Sherman, Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1, 421-449 (2018).
- Not matchedcites [44] 44. R. Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2007).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police violence is a leading cause of death for young men, and young men of color face exceptionally high risk of being killed by police.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“FE provides more comprehensive data on police-involved deaths than do official mortality files (34), has a broader scope than similar unofficial efforts to document deaths, and has been endorsed as a sound source of data by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (47).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] 47. National Center for Health Statistics, Multiple cause of death data, 2000 -2017. https://www.nber.org/data/vital-statistics-mortality-data-multiple-cause-of-death. html. Accessed 25 January 2019.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“List- wise deletion of missing cases unrealistically understates uncertainty in our parameter estimates and negatively biases mortality risk estimates (SI Appendix, Fig. S8).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
“with the central assumption that risk profiles observed between 2013 and 2018 remain stable”
“with the key assumption that underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed levels throughout the life course”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“If this pattern holds true nationwide, it means we have underestimated the extent of racial disparities in police use of deadly force based on the racial makeup of the population [2, 3, 26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Prior research suggests the risk of being killed by police is highest for all racial groups between the ages of 20 and 35 [26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
In the citing paper
“The evidence is mixed as to whether CITs are effective at preventing police violence (80, 81).”
From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [80]
Citations
Cites
mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R
Buuren, S. V., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i03 · Cited by 13,870
(2010) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 6,037
Punishment and inequality in America
Joseph, M. (2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-4178 · Cited by 2,066
Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California
Mobley, A. (2008) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/009430610803700238 · Cited by 1,851 · cited 1×
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43, 44).”
BackgroundDemography, Measuring and Modeling Population Processes
Véron, J., Preston, S. H., Heuveline, P., & Guillot, M. (2002) · Population · doi:10.2307/1535065 · Cited by 1,709
Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration
Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900201 · Cited by 1,499
Rios, V. M. (2011) · New York University Press eBooks · doi:10.18574/nyu/9780814777114.001.0001 · Cited by 1,270
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Gelman, A., Fagan, J., & Kiss, A. (2007) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1198/016214506000001040 · Cited by 873
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- J. Soss, V. Weaver, Learning from Ferguson: Policing, race, and class in American politics. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 20, 565–591 (2017).
- A. S. Vitale, The End of Policing (Verso Books, New York, NY, 2017).
- T. Y. Rocha Beardall “Transactional policing: Reframing local police-community relations through the lens of police employment ” PhD thesis Cornell University Ithaca NY (2019).
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Items 501–600 of 933
Gagné, J. (2024) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae026 · Cited by 5
“The 2008 start date was selected based on prior research found that FE coverage meaningfully improves prior to this year, as online news media grew, and stopped improving thereafter (4).”
BackgroundMethodAssessing the Ecological Variation in the Police Response to Hate Crime: Evidence From New York City
Holder, E., & Ledford, L. S. (2024) · Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/07340168241265104 · Cited by 2
“Most notable is the relationship between a community ’ s share of nonwhite and poor persons and their disproportionate exposure to police actions like stops, arrests, and use-of-force (Dichter et al., 2011; Edwards et al., 2019; Ferrandino, 2015; Gelman et al., 2007; Paoline III et al., 2018).”
Durrant, L., & Gillum, N. L. (2024) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.13100 · Cited by 2
Vargas, R., & Verstynen, T. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00186-w · Cited by 3
A calibrated BISG for inferring race from surname and geolocation
Greengard, P., & Gelman, A. (2025) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (Statistics in Society) · doi:10.1093/jrsssa/qnaf003 · Cited by 6
Beyond denial: Police‐recommended solutions to community policing challenges
Fix, R. L. (2025) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12810 · Cited by 3
Park, K., & Kim, J. (2025) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-025-02470-1 · Cited by 2
“This could be attributed to the lower prevalence of police encounters among young Asian adolescents compared to other racial/ethnic groups [21].”
Bowleg, L., Malekzadeh, A. N., & AuBuchon, K. E. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-91371-6_9 · Cited by 2
The power of affective capital: rethinking emotions in racial domination
Hordge-Freeman, E., & Loblack, A. (2025) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.1080/01419870.2025.2570477 · Cited by 3
“The impact of structural racism is evidenced by disparities in education (Gaddis 2015), housing (Massey 1990), employment discrimination (Quillian et al. 2017), risks of police violence (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019), and differential access to and biases in healthcare (Laster Pirtle 2020).”
Walker, G. T., Taylor, M. A., & Chansky, H. A. (2020) · Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery · doi:10.2106/jbjs.20.01505 · Cited by 2
Posick, C., & Dawson, A. J. (2021) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.05.011 · Cited by 2
Existe-t-il des inégalités raciales de santé aux États-Unis ?
Chelle, É. (2021) · Revue française des affaires sociales · doi:10.3917/rfas.213.0125 · Cited by 1
Order from chaos: sociology as a population science
Jackson, M. (2022) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9781789909432.00009 · Cited by 3
Demilitarizing Hospital Restraints: Recognizing the Stones in Our Glass Houses
Dotson, S. J., Ogbu-Nwobodo, L., & Shtasel, D. L. (2021) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.202000730 · Cited by 2
Coleman, S. T., Davis, J. L., & Doughty, C. (2021) · Advances in mobile and distance learning book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7537-6.ch004 · Cited by 2
First Responders and Mental Health
Ryan, M., Hasan, F., Molina, L., Cervoni, C., Palladino, J., Vujanovic, A. A., & Gonzalez, A. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818697-8.00161-8 · Cited by 4
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.003.0001 · Cited by 2
What about the Baby? Infancy and Parenting in the COVID-19 Pandemic
Ribaudo, J. (2021) · The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child · doi:10.1080/00797308.2021.2001251 · Cited by 2
Policing and Indigenous Civilian Deaths in Canada
Gillezeau, R., Rushford, D. T., & Weaver, D. N. (2022) · Journal of Economics Race and Policy · doi:10.1007/s41996-022-00097-6 · Cited by 2
“However, the Canadian literature has only focused on large cities and, in line with American work by Feigenberg and Miller (2021), killings may actually follow a U-shape, occurring primarily in communities with smaller or very large minority populations.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Past as Prologue: Police Stops and Legacies of Complaints About Neighborhood Police Misconduct
McCarthy, B., Hagan, J. L., Herda, D., & Skogan, W. G. (2023) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687221140553 · Cited by 2
“These connections persist in the disproportionate use of fatal violence by the police against Black and Brown populations (Edwards et al., 2019; Hirsch fi eld, 2023) and in the attitudes of many law enforcement of fi cers who are less likely than the general public to view racial inequality as due…”
Maternal Love in the Warzone: Exploring How Mothers Socialize Black Sons to Manage Racism
Hawkins, H. (2023) · Clinical Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10615-023-00870-6 · Cited by 2
“When considering Black men, the story is even more stark, as one in one thousand will be killed by police in their lifetime compared to one in two thousand for men in general (Edwards et al., 2019; Finch et al.2019). Reflecting on the day that 17-year-old Trayvon Martin was killed by neighborhood patrolmen George Zimm…”
BackgroundLethal Force Usage by Law Enforcement Officers Against Hispanics, 2011–2020
Price, J. H., & Khubchandani, J. (2023) · Journal of Community Health · doi:10.1007/s10900-023-01222-8 · Cited by 2
Luck, A. N. (2023) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.107114 · Cited by 2
Policing, Lethal Force, and the Struggle for Equal Treatment: The Doug Purvis Memorial Lecture
Gillezeau, R. (2023) · Canadian-American public policy · doi:10.3138/cpp.2023-010 · Cited by 2
Association between outdoor temperature and fatal police shootings in the United States, 2015–2021
Martinson, E., Chang, H. H., D’Souza, R. R., Ebelt, S., & Scovronick, N. (2023) · Environmental Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ee9.0000000000000267 · Cited by 2
The role of race in pediatric legal intervention as a cause of injury
Gibbs, E., Schomberg, J., Wallace, E. L., Bose, S. K., Yu, J., Guner, Y. S., & Yu, P. T. (2021) · Journal of Pediatric Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2021.09.030 · Cited by 2
Yazdiha, H., & Boen, C. E. (2022) · Currents · doi:10.3998/ncidcurrents.1780 · Cited by 2
Racial and ethnic variation in the negativity bias–ideology connection: A registered report
Gonzalez, F. J., Jin, R., & Wang, I. S. (2022) · Politics and the Life Sciences · doi:10.1017/pls.2022.19 · Cited by 2
““The police” are often a threat to the lives of minorities (Edwards et al., 2019), and this is reflected in their attitudes toward the police (Bolger et al.”
BackgroundSociology as a Science of Culture: Linguistic Pluralism in Australia and Belarus
Smolicz, J. J., & Secombe, M. (2003) · Comparative Sociology · doi:10.1163/156913303100418898 · Cited by 2
“Racial stigma, for example, results in lowered expectations for students of color in schools (Steele and Aronson 1995, Steele 1997, Zirkel 2005), prejudicial hiring practices (Pager and Quillian 2005, Quillian et al. 2017), and violent encounters with police (Edwards, Lee and Esposito 2019).”
Rasmussen, R., Levari, D. E., Akhtar, M., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/e6dar · Cited by 2
Threat of Racial and Economic Inequality Increases Preference for Algorithm Decision-MakingPreprint
Bigman, Y., Yam, K. C., Marciano, D., Reynolds, S., & Gray, K. J. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/pxt8h · Cited by 3
Parks, N., & Kirby, B. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/eqbh2 · Cited by 2
Ethical use of administrative data in inequality researchPreprint
Lee, D. D. I., & Velez, Y. R. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/snm7p · Cited by 2
Regression with race-modifiers: towards equity and interpretabilityPreprint
Kowal, D. R. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4158747/v1 · Cited by 2
The Rise of the Carceral State: Foundations and Contours of a Rapidly Changing Criminal Legal System
Wakefield, S., & Turney, K. (2025) · RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences · doi:10.7758/rsf.2025.11.3.04 · Cited by 3
“…incarceration (Turney and Connor 2019) or pretrial detention (Williams 2003), police contact (Geller and Fagan 2019), exposure to police violence (Edwards et al. 2019), and criminal legal system contact that may not involve incarceration but remains consequential for social and economic life…”
Police violence and preterm birth—Moving towards antiracism in our research on racism
Messer, L. C., & Richardson, D. M. (2021) · Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology · doi:10.1111/ppe.12764 · Cited by 1
Vanessa, Y., & Selvie, V. (2022) · Gloria Justitia · doi:10.25170/gloriajustitia.v2i1.3398 · Cited by 1
Guerreiros ou guardiões? Notas sobre o conceito de polícia
Rolim, M. (2023) · Revista Direito e Práxis · doi:10.1590/2179-8966/2021/57448 · Cited by 1
Good-Perkins, E. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197611654.013.40 · Cited by 1
Beardslee, W. R. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42825-9_107-1 · Cited by 1
Neighborhood-level fatal police violence and severe maternal morbidity in California
Hailu, E. M., Riddell, C. A., Tucker, C. M., Ahern, J., Bradshaw, P. T., Carmichael, S. L., & Mujahid, M. S. (2024) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwae124 · Cited by 3
Saleh, S., & Zidan, M. (2024) · Dirasat Human and Social Sciences · doi:10.35516/hum.v51i5.5035 · Cited by 1
“Moreover, such a strategy is racially biased since “black men are about 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over the life course than are white men” (Edwards et al., 2019, 16796).”
BackgroundInfluentialJuvenile fatalities in law enforcement encounters
Culhane, S. E., & Wiser, J. L. (2024) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2024.102292 · Cited by 1
Hey, B., Chowdhury, M., Ansloos, J. P., & Heakes, M. (2025) · Critical Public Health · doi:10.1080/09581596.2025.2486500 · Cited by 1
“In the United states, Native american men and women are 1.2–1.7 to 1.1–2.1 times more likely to die by police over their lifetime compared to the general population (edwards et al., 2019).”
InfluentialPSYCHOTRAUMATIC EXPERIENCES OF ADOLESCENTS DURING THE WAR IN UKRAINE
Kharchenko, Y., & Онуфрієва, Л. А. (2025) · Psychological Prospects Journal · doi:10.29038/2227-1376-2025-45-kha · Cited by 1
Bahr, W. V., Parks, A., Mesa, H., & Fleming, P. J. (2025) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/10901981251353505 · Cited by 1
Schmitz, L., Kemme, S., & Struck, J. (2025) · Monatsschrift für Kriminologie und Strafrechtsreform · doi:10.1515/mks-2025-0003 · Cited by 2
Koslicki, W. M., Morczek, A. L., Posey, B. M., & Kennedy, L. P. (2025) · Policing & Society · doi:10.1080/10439463.2025.2532549 · Cited by 1
“While the risk of being killed by police is higher for Black men (see Edwards et al .”
Police Avoidance and Depressive Symptoms Among Black Youth
Jackson, D. B., Fix, R. L., Webb, L., Mmari, K., Mendelson, T., Testa, A. M., Jindal, M., Alang, S., & Bowleg, L. (2025) · Academic Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.acap.2025.103111 · Cited by 1
Addressing Police Brutality of Black Men: Using a Trauma-Informed Approach
Boamah, D. A., McGraw, L., Wilson, B. L., Nwachuku, B., Miller, S. M., Harmon, D. K., Young, B., Moore, S. E., & Jones-Eversley, S. D. (2025) · Social Work in Public Health · doi:10.1080/19371918.2025.2540264 · Cited by 1
“…stopped while driving (Warren et al., 2006), experience use of non-lethal force (e.g., being handcuffed without arrest, tased, or having a police officer’s weapon drawn or pointed (Fryer, 2019; Wright & Headley, 2020) or be killed by police (Edwards et al., 2019) than their white counterparts.”
Whose victimization pays? Policing innocent victimhood in victim compensation law
Levine, J. R. (2025) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1017/lsr.2025.10046 · Cited by 1
State-by-State Review: The Spread of Law Enforcement Accountability Policies
Zare, H., Gilmore, D. R., Balsara, K., Pargas, C., Valek, R. A., Ponce, A. N., Masoudi, N., Spencer, M., Warren, T., & Crifasi, C. K. (2025) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci14080483 · Cited by 4
Shaikh, A. N., Westcott, J. B., Mize, M. C., & Chang, C. Y. (2025) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2025.2542413 · Cited by 3
Skin color stratification in police contact among Asian-descent people
Baluran, D. A. (2025) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spaf033 · Cited by 2
Cheek, J., Bonam, C. M., & Langhout, R. D. (2025) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/asap.70036 · Cited by 1
Harruff, R. C., Lacy, J. M., Yarid, N. A., & Maskovyak, A. E. (2025) · Journal of Forensic Sciences · doi:10.1111/1556-4029.70193 · Cited by 1
Fix, R. L., & Jackson, D. B. (2025) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.70064 · Cited by 1
Sidhu, T. (2025) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2025.2595417 · Cited by 2
“A substantial volume of literature demonstrates that racialized peoples experience force at different rates and in different contexts than their White counterparts (Dymond et al., 2024; Edwards et al., 2019; Laming, 2023; Wortley et al., 2020).”
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Black Men, Women, and Black Diasporic Groups
Gregory, V. L. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-01666-9_8 · Cited by 1
Cumulative disadvantage and perceptions of unfair treatment
Broman, C. L., Kelly, M. D. A., Bista, S., et al. (2026) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2025.2604842 · Cited by 1
Crisis Line Use Among Undergraduate Men of Color: A Qualitative Inquiry
Shaikh, A. N., Westcott, J. B., Dosal‐Terminel, D., Loury, J. A., & Gueh, B. B. (2026) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/00110000251352569 · Cited by 2
“This effect may be larger for men of color, who are more likely to experience fatal police violence (Edwards et al., 2019; Martin & Higginbotham; 2024) including during mental health crises (Shadravan et al., 2021).”
A Mixed Methods Exploration of Emergency Service Use Among Autistic Youth
Bradley, R. S., Quetsch, L. B., del Rosario, E.-A., & Shields, K. (2026) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-026-07229-z · Cited by 1
Anger About Police-Civilian Relations and Support for Policing Reforms
Balcarová, L., Pickett, J. T., Graham, A., & Cullen, F. T. (2026) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00224278261425209 · Cited by 2
“One is the well-documented racial gradient in police-related experiences and attitudes (Edwards et al. 2019; Graham et al. 2020; Thompson et al. 2025; Weitzer and Tuch 2006).”
Schwartz, G. L., Beardall, T. R., & Jahn, J. L. (2026) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · doi:10.1073/pnas.2521002123 · Cited by 1
“Indigenous people, for example, experience some of the highest population - based rates of fatal police violence of any racial/ethnic group (2).”
InfluentialPrehospital transport of police officers after firearm injury across US cities
Fang, C. C., & Sanghavi, P. (2026) · Injury Prevention · doi:10.1136/ip-2025-045871 · Cited by 1
“20 Yet the alternative – police waiting for ambulances while victims bleed – may itself deepen distrust.”
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.001.0001 · Cited by 2
Kim, S., Saad, B., & Kelada, A. (2026) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2026.108724 · Cited by 1
Curry, T. J. (2026) · Philosophy Compass · doi:10.1111/phc3.70082 · Cited by 1
“This provides some explanation as to why Black males comprise the majority of Black victims killed by police (Edwards et al. 2019).”
"We're not marauders, we're allies"
Langsdale, S. (2019) · Unbound A Journal of Digital Scholarship · doi:10.12794/journals.ujds.v1i1.98 · Cited by 2
Valbuena, V. S. M., Howard, R., Bonner, S. N., & Dimick, J. B. (2020) · Annals of Surgery · doi:10.1097/sla.0000000000004458 · Cited by 1
“’’ The circumstances of their deaths followed a disturbing narrative that plays out ad nauseum in Black communities in America – one where Black lives are disposable and the right to justice is bargained as a luxury in a broken system.(1) The days that followed Floyd’s death were marked by widespread outrage.”
BackgroundThe Promise of a Network Approach for Policing Research
Ouellet, M., Hashimi, S., Gravel, J., & Dabney, D. A. (2020) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2020.1841268 · Cited by 6
Wetherell, K. T. E., & Miethe, T. D. (2021) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/10887679211018492 · Cited by 1
“Previous empirical research has identified a number of situational factors and wider socio-economic conditions associated with individual incidents and rates of police homicide over place and time (Edwards et al., 2019; Fagan & Campbell, 2020; Klinger et al., 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialHajnal, Z. L., Hutchings, V. L., & Lee, T. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108633352.018 · Cited by 1
An Evaluation of Guns, Gun Violence and Gun Homicides in Trinidad and Tobago—2010 to 2016
Wallace, W. C., Nurse-Carrington, A., & Harry, A. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-84518-6_10 · Cited by 1
Duckworth, M. P., Radenhausen, M., Seekins, M., & Iezzi, T. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35517-3_3 · Cited by 2
Hogan, J. N., Garcia, A. M., Tomko, R., Squeglia, L., & Flanagan, J. C. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221081928 · Cited by 3
“…racism within policing is associated with increased risk of punishment and physical assault for Black individuals, particularly Black men, which may lead Black families to be less inclined to involve authorities in domestic issues (Bor et al., 2018; Edwards et al., 2019; Geller et al., 2014).”
BackgroundWhy Racial Justice Matters in Radiation Oncology
Chapman, C. H., Gabeau, D., Pinnix, C. C., et al. (2020) · Advances in Radiation Oncology · doi:10.1016/j.adro.2020.10.005 · Cited by 1
What you should know about RACISM-20 in the U.S.: a fact sheet in the time of COVID-19
Petteway, R. J. (2022) · Critical Public Health · doi:10.1080/09581596.2022.2078180 · Cited by 1
“In December 2020, it was estimated that COVID-19 had killed at least 1 in 1,000 Black Americans – a chilling statistic matched only by the grim reality that 1 in 1,000 Black men in America can expect to be killed by police over their lifetime (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundPollock, W., Sibila, D. A., Frantzen, D., Luo, F., & del Carmen, A. (2022) · Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/07340168221124459 · Cited by 1
“Interestingly, while Hispanic men were found to be between 1.3 and 1.4 times as likely as White men to be killed during con fl icts with the police, Hispanic women were much less likely ─ between 12 and 23% ─ to be killed by police than White women (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialViolence and the Carceral State
Mitchell, R. A., & Aronson, J. D. (2022) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2022.17144 · Cited by 1
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.003.0001 · Cited by 1
Vincent, W., del Río‐González, A. M., Neilands, T. B., & Bowleg, L. (2022) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-022-02488-0 · Cited by 3
“Challenges and adversity are part of what characterize resilience, and, for Black heterosexual men, these risk factors include anti-Black racial discrimination and related structural inequality such as disproportionate incarceration (Bronson & Carson, 2018), unemployment (United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019…”
BackgroundRacism Damages Health Through Many Causal Pathways
Braveman, P. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190624118.003.0005 · Cited by 1
A Model “Critical Decision-Making Model”, Case-Study of Ghana, West Africa
Norman, I. D. (2023) · Advances in Applied Sociology · doi:10.4236/aasoci.2023.134020 · Cited by 1
Descriptive Epidemiology of Fatal Law Enforcement Interactions with Teenagers, 2010–2020
Price, J. H., & Payton, E. (2023) · Journal of Community Health · doi:10.1007/s10900-023-01243-3 · Cited by 1
Firearm Mortality of Non-Hispanic Black Americans by Law Enforcement, 2011–2020
Price, J. H., & Khubchandani, J. (2023) · Journal of Community Health · doi:10.1007/s10900-023-01263-z · Cited by 1
“The high rate of killing in this age group has also been confirmed by earlier studies [ 3].”
InfluentialNelson, L. R., Fitzgerald, S., & Hutchins, D. (2023) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075231193441 · Cited by 1
“Indeed, recent statistics reveal that Black men are 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police than White men, and Black women are 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than White women (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialMorley, R. H., Fulton, C. L., Bowman, S. W., & Trujillo, L. T. (2023) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-023-09612-3 · Cited by 3
Examining differences in opioid deaths by race in North Carolina following the STOP Act, 2010–2019
Hughes, P. M., Ostrach, B. M. M., & Tak, C. R. (2023) · Journal of Substance Use and Addiction Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.josat.2023.209171 · Cited by 1
Mindfulness Processes that Mitigate COVID-Related Stressors in Caregivers in the United States
Wen, N. J., Lo, S. L., & Miller, A. L. (2023) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-023-02681-2 · Cited by 1
“…on communities of color such as racism (Bailey et al., 2017), housing challenges (Zimmerman & Anderson, 2019), mass incarceration (Wildeman & Wang, 2017), and police brutality (Edwards et al., 2019) contribute to higher stress and exacerbates existing physical and mental health disparities.”
Burke, S. C., McPhee, J., Anjaria, N., DeYoung, L. L. A., NeMoyer, A., Perkins, E. R., Kina, F., Parker, L. E., April, K., McKitten, R. L., et al. (2023) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2023.2292515 · Cited by 1
“As such, young Black men and boys are more likely to experience aggressive proactive policing strategies and to be killed by police than individuals from other age and racial/ethnic groups (Edwards et al., 2019).”
Murry, A. T., & Patka, M. (2024) · Studies in Social Justice · doi:10.26522/ssj.v18i1.4051 · Cited by 2
Racism and violence in policing: Perspectives from a juvenile prison
Fix, R. L. (2024) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.23104 · Cited by 1
Terrorism-Induced Trauma and Corporate Innovation
Bhattacharya, D., Cheng, T. F., Cheng, T.-C. F., et al. (2024) · Pacific-Basin Finance Journal · doi:10.1016/j.pacfin.2024.102360 · Cited by 1
Johnson, R. (2024) · Advances in medical diagnosis, treatment, and care (AMDTC) book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-1459-3.ch004 · Cited by 1
Domingos, T., & Smith, C. M. M. (2024) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231241258378 · Cited by 1
“Research has documented the racial disparities among men’s experience of police violence: Black and Latinx men experience disproportionately more fatal police violence than White men (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019; Zimring 2017).”
InfluentialDillon, D. G., McConville, S., & Hsia, R. Y.-J. (2024) · Injury Prevention · doi:10.1136/ip-2024-045250 · Cited by 1
Nugent, W. R., & Khalil, A. (2024) · Advances in Social Work · doi:10.18060/27231 · Cited by 3
“Historical evidence suggests this form of violence has roots, among other things, in Jim Crow laws and it has been argued that this violence has helped perpetuate white supremacy and racial control (Bailey et al., 2021; Edwards et al., 2019; University of Michigan Carceral State Project, 2021).”
BackgroundMartinez, R. A., Andrabi, N., Goodwin, A. N., Wilbur, R. E., Smith, N., & Zivich, P. N. (2024) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwae259 · Cited by 1
Perceptions of police as a moderator between negative experiences and mental health symptoms.
Algrim, K., Keita, M., Herbert, C., Moreno, F., & Boxer, P. (2024) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.23141 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M.
- Affiliations
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Edwards, Frank
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2019-08-05
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 34
- Pages
- 16793-16798
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6708348
- OpenAlex
- W2965198355
- Cited by
- 916
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 108 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 151 · 2022: 188 · 2021: 161 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 467.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- police use of force, racial disparities, age-specific risk, sex differences, African American men, Hispanic men, Hispanic women, young men of color, causes of death
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Death, Ethnicity, Female, Humans, Male, Risk, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Police, Racial Groups, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-29, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-29 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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