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Cited by 230Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource ManagementLand Rights and ReformsIndigenous Cultures and History

Collective property rights reduce deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon

Open access
Baragwanath, Kathryn, Bayi, Ella·2020·Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
DOI 10.1073/pnas.1917874117PMC PMC7456116
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Abstract

Significance: Deforestation in the Amazon has reached record highs in 2019 and poses a serious threat to climate change. In Brazil, about 2 million hectares of indigenous land are still awaiting homologation, and thus do not have their full property rights. We find that granting property rights significantly reduces the levels of deforestation inside indigenous territories, and the results are of significant orders of magnitude. Our local effects indicate that areas of land right inside a territory with full property rights experience significantly less deforestation than those right outside of the border. Collective property rights might thus provide an effective way to reduce deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Using satellite data and a regression discontinuity design, the paper finds that granting full collective property rights (homologation) to indigenous territories in the Brazilian Amazon significantly reduces deforestation inside their borders. The effect is absent in territories without full property rights, suggesting homologation is a cost-effective forest-preservation tool.

Key findings

  • Observations inside territories with full property rights show a significant decrease in deforestation, while the effect does not exist in territories without full property rights.
  • Homologation is associated with about a 2-percentage point decrease in deforestation right at the border; against baseline deforestation of around 3%, this represents a 75% decrease. After homologation, deforestation in the RDD buffer fell from 3% to 1%.
  • Nonhomologated territories show no significant discontinuity; before-homologation estimates are much smaller than after-homologation estimates (e.g., in Table 1, before homologation 4th-order optimal bandwidth estimate −0.17 vs after homologation −1.99).
  • The paper estimates that the standstill in homologation under Temer and Bolsonaro could be responsible for an extra 1.5 million hectares of deforestation per year.

Methods

  • Uses NASA VCF5KYR fractional vegetation cover data at ~4 km × 4 km resolution, yearly 1982–2016, creating a panel of 30,699 pixels and 1,074,465 observations across 245 indigenous territories.
  • Combines a geographic regression discontinuity design around territory borders (12-km buffer inside/outside) with the orthogonal timing of homologation, comparing before/after and inside/outside, and using nonhomologated territories as controls/placebo.
  • Main estimates use RDD with fourth-order polynomial and MSE-optimal bandwidth, robust standard errors clustered at indigenous territory level; robustness checks vary covariates, bandwidths, functional forms, time windows, and the BenYishay et al. sample.

Limitations

  • Paper-stated: estimates are local average treatment effects; the design cannot rule out leakage, and the authors cannot make causal claims about total deforestation levels in the Amazon as a whole. They report limited evidence of leakage inside buffers: the difference in deforestation right outside borders before and after homologation is less than 0.2 percentage points, compared with the 2-percentage point reduction.
  • Paper-stated: VCF5KYR has lower spatial resolution than Hansen data; years 1994 and 2000 are missing and imputed as the average of adjacent years; spatially explicit poverty/population covariates are limited (nightlights from 1990s, population from 2000 in 5-y intervals), so main models use mainly geological/physical covariates, with robustness checks including nightlights and GPW yielding somewhat smaller but significant results.
  • Evident from text: the RDD is boundary-local and balance tests show a jump at the cutoff for elevation (though other geographic variables appear balanced and covariates are included); territories in the first demarcation step lack geocoded boundaries, reducing the number analyzed.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1073/pnas.1917874117

Cites

46 of 46 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

5 of 29 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingcitation
    § Abstract

    The paper's results are similar to Blackman et al.'s finding that titling reduces clearing by more than three-quarters in a 2-y period after the title is awarded.

    “They find that titling reduces clearing by more than three-quarters in a 2-y period after the title is awarded (25); we find a similar 75% reduction in deforestation within our study buffers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Blackman A., Corral L., Lima E. S., Asner G. P., Titling indigenous communities protects forests in the Peruvian Amazon. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 114, 4123–4128 (2017). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] source

      The Discussion and Hypotheses reports that titling reduces forest clearing by more than three-quarters over a two-year window. But that window spans the year the title is awarded and the following year, not a two-year period after the award; the Results likewise reports an 80% average annual reduction across those two years. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data
    § Abstract

    The paper's results confirm the results found in Soares-Filho et al., Blackman et al., and Nolte et al. on the effectiveness of indigenous territories at curbing deforestation.

    “while we are able to confirm the results found in Soares-Filho et al. (22), Blackman et al. (25), and Nolte et al. (5) on the effectiveness of indigenous territories at curbing deforestation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [22] Soares-Filho B., et al. , Role of Brazilian Amazon protected areas in climate change mitigation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 10821–10826 (2010). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] source
    • cites [25] Blackman A., Corral L., Lima E. S., Asner G. P., Titling indigenous communities protects forests in the Peruvian Amazon. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 114, 4123–4128 (2017). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] source
    • cites [5] Nolte C., Agrawal A., Silvius K. M., Britaldo S. S. F., Governance regime and location influence avoided deforestation success of protected areas in the Brazilian Amazon. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110, 4956–4961 (2013). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] source
  • Findingown data
    § Abstract

    The difference in deforestation rates right outside the borders before and after homologation is less than 0.2 percentage points.

    “The difference in deforestation rates right outside of the borders before and after homologation is less than 0.2 percentage points”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Abstract

    The coefficients of the RDD for territories with full property rights are significantly larger and more precisely estimated than those for observations before homologation and those in nonhomologated territories.

    “The coefficients of the RDD for territories with full property rights (After Homologation and After Hom, Cov) are significantly larger and more precisely estimated than those for observations before homologation and those in nonhomologated territories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The potential outcomes of deforestation are continuous at the indigenous territory border, so pixels just inside and outside the border are comparable except for property rights.
  • Findingreasoning
    § Abstract

    Homologation is associated with a 75% decrease in deforestation (from about 3% to 1%) within the RDD buffer.

    “Considering that the baseline levels of deforestation in our sample are around 3%, this represents a 75% decrease in deforestation.”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “After homologation, the area of indigenous territories within the buffer used in the RDD estimation saw a decrease in deforestation of 75% (went from 3% to 1%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The potential outcomes of deforestation are continuous at the indigenous territory border, so pixels just inside and outside the border are comparable except for property rights.
  • May combine two claims. 16
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 9

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Homologation enables indigenous territories to fulfill three CPR management requisites: clearly defined boundaries, collective management, and recognition of rights to organize.

    “Thus, homologation enables indigenous territories to fulfill three of the CPR management requisites: “clearly defined boundaries,” “collective management,” and “recognition of rights to organize” (11–13, 30).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [11] Ostrom E., “Analyzing long-enduring, self-organized, and self-governed CPRs” in Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 58–102. [Google Scholar]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [12] Ostrom E., Beyond markets and states: Polycentric governance of complex economic systems. Am. Econ. Assoc. 100, 641–672 (2010). [Google Scholar] source
    • cites [13] Dietz T., Ostrom E., Stern P. C., The struggle to govern the commons. Science 1907, 1–6 (2014). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] source
    • cites [30] Poteete A. R., Janssen M., Ostrom E., Working Together: Collective Action, the Commons, and Multiple Methods in Practice (Princeton University Press, 2010). [Google Scholar] source

      The only passage returned from our copy is the book’s title and publication information (front matter; no page given). Searches for “homologation” and the three CPR requisites found no substantive passage, so this copy cannot establish whether the book supports the claim. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Abstract

    Observations inside territories with full property rights show a significant decrease in deforestation, while the effect does not exist in territories without full property rights.

    “We find that observations inside territories with full property rights show a significant decrease in deforestation, while the effect does not exist in territories without full property rights.”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · boosted
      “Our results show strong effects of collective property rights on deforestation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data
    § Materials and Methods

    The fourth-order polynomial estimates are the most conservative.

    “as can be seen in Table 1, the fourth-order polynomial estimates are the most conservative”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Materials and Methods

    Balance tests show a jump at the cutoff for elevation, but all other geographic variables seem to be balanced.

    “We see a jump at the cutoff for elevation, but all other geographic variables seem to be balanced.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Materials and Methods

    The number of homologated territories per year varies greatly, from 0 to 70 territories homologated in any given year, and seems to follow no clear pattern.

    “The number of homologated territories per year varies greatly, from 0 to 70 territories homologated in any given year, and seems to follow no clear pattern”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Acknowledgments

    The donut hole analysis diminishes the size of the estimated effects, which could suggest some leakage, but the effects remain significant.

    “Although the donut hole analysis does diminish the size of the estimated effects, which could suggest that there is some leakage, the effects remain significant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingreasoning
    § Acknowledgments

    The study does not see sorting around the boundary.

    “Since our outcomes of interest are environmental and geographic in nature, we also do not see sorting around the boundary”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Materials and Methods

    Robustness checks including nightlights and GPW indicate that the results regarding property rights are somewhat smaller, but remain statistically significant.

    “Robustness checks including nightlights and GPW indicate that our results regarding property rights are somewhat smaller, but remain statistically significant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation
    § Abstract

    The paper's new dataset provides a measure of forest cover derived from tree cover measures, making it possible to identify deforestation more accurately.

    “We use a new dataset (35) which provides a measure of FC derived from tree cover measures, thus making it possible to identify deforestation in a more accurate way.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Hansen M. C., Song X. P., Data from “Vegetation continuous Fields (VCF) yearly global 0.05 deg.” NASA EOSDIS Land Processes DAAC. https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/products/vcf5kyrv001/. Accessed 12 July 2019.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Once homologated, a territory becomes the permanent possession of its indigenous peoples, no third party can contest its existence, and extractive activities carried out by external actors can only occur after consulting the communities and the National Congress.

    “Once homologated, a territory becomes the permanent possession of its indigenous peoples, no third party can contest its existence, and extractive activities carried out by external actors can only occur after consulting the communities and the National Congress.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Rosenn K. S., Brazil’s Constitution of 1988 with Amendments through 2014. Constituteproject.Org. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Brazil_2014.pdf. Accessed 7 June 2019.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Without homologation, indigenous territories do not have the legal rights needed to protect their territories, their territorial resources are not considered their own, and the government is not constitutionally responsible for protecting them from encroachment, invasion, and external use of their resources.

    “Thus, without homologation, indigenous territories do not have the legal rights needed to protect their territories, their territorial resources are not considered their own, and the government is not constitutionally responsible for protecting them from encroachment, invasion, and external use of their resources.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Rosenn K. S., Brazil’s Constitution of 1988 with Amendments through 2014. Constituteproject.Org. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Brazil_2014.pdf. Accessed 7 June 2019.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    When implemented, indigenous property rights create sustainable areas in the Amazon rainforest, providing an important positive externality for Brazil and the rest of the world in terms of climate change mitigation.

    “when implemented, indigenous property rights create sustainable areas in the Amazon rainforest, providing an important positive externality for Brazil and the rest of the world in terms of climate change mitigation”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Materials and Methods

    Proximity to roads, rivers, and mines and elevation and rainfall are significant predictors of deforestation.

    “Existing literature has found that proximity to roads, rivers, and mines and elevation and rainfall are significant predictors of deforestation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [23] Bonilla-Mejía L., Higuera-Mendieta I., Protected areas under weak institutions: Evidence from Colombia. World Dev. 122, 585–596 (2019). [Google Scholar] source
    • cites [27] BenYishay A., Heuser S., Runfola D., Trichler R., Indigenous land rights and deforestation: Evidence from the Brazilian Amazon. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 86, 29–47 (2017). [Google Scholar] source
    • cites [31] Assunção J., Gandour C., Rocha R., DETERring deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon: Environmental monitoring and law enforcement. https://climatepolicyinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/DETERring-Deforestation-in-the-Brazilian-Amazon-Environmental-Monitoring-and-Law-Enforcement-Technical-Paper.pdf. Accessed 9 September 2019.
    • cites [32] Fearnside P., Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon. Oxford Res. Encycl. Environ. Sci. 58, 1–52 (2017). [Google Scholar] source
    • cites [37] Nepstad D., et al. , Slowing Amazon deforestation through public policy and interventions in beef and soy supply chains. Science 344, 1118–1123 (2014). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] source
    • cites [38] Barber C. P., Cochrane M. A., Souza C. M., Laurance W. F., Roads, deforestation, and the mitigating effect of protected areas in the Amazon. Biol. Conserv. 177, 203–209 (2014). [Google Scholar] source
    • cites [39] Busch J., Ferretti-Gallon K., What drives deforestation and what stops it? A meta-analysis. Rev. Environ. Econ. Pol. 11, 3–23 (2017). [Google Scholar] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Full property rights are an important requirement for indigenous territories to fulfill the CPR environmental law enforcement requisites.

    “Full property rights are an important requirement for indigenous territories to fulfill the CPR environmental law enforcement requisites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Abstract

    The paper's use of all indigenous territories with geographic information (245 territories) avoids selection on unobservables.

    “Second, we are able to look at all indigenous territories for which there is geographic information, bringing us to a total of 245 territories. Not using all territories, as some papers have done, may lead to selection on unobservables.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract

    The complete standstill in homologation of indigenous lands beginning with the Temer administration and continuing under President Bolsonaro could be responsible for an extra 1.5 million hectares of deforestation per year.

    “The complete standstill in homologation of indigenous lands which began with the Temer administration and has continued under President Bolsonaro could be responsible for an extra 1.5 million hectares of deforestation per year.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Abstract

    If CPR management requisites are met and indigenous peoples are provided property rights over their land, they can better manage their land and protect it from external threats.

    “if CPR management requisites are met, and indigenous peoples are provided property rights over their land, they can better manage their land and protect it from external threats”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Abstract

    The effects are robust to the inclusion of covariates, different bandwidths, and different time periods (3, 5, and 10 y before and after homologation).

    “Our results are robust to the inclusion of covariates, different bandwidths, and different time periods—that is, selecting observations 3, 5, and 10 y before and after homologation (SI Appendix, Fig. S7).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The potential outcomes of deforestation are continuous at the indigenous territory border, so pixels just inside and outside the border are comparable except for property rights.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Acknowledgments

    The simple measure of distance (naive distance) is appropriate for the RDD because the study does not face problems such as compound treatment effects or differential treatment at different points of the border.

    “We do not need the more complex geographic distance since we do not face some of the problems identified by Keele and Titiunik, such as compound treatment effects and or differential treatment at different points of the border, so we believe our simple measure of distance is appropriate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Keele and Titiunik

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Materials and Methods

    Poverty and population have been found to matter for deforestation.

    “poverty and population have been found to matter as well”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] Busch J., Ferretti-Gallon K., What drives deforestation and what stops it? A meta-analysis. Rev. Environ. Econ. Pol. 11, 3–23 (2017). [Google Scholar] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Acknowledgments

    The more complex geographic distance design is unnecessary in this case.

    “further making the more complex design unnecessary in this case”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Acknowledgments

    BenYishay et al. (27) rely on the orthogonality in the timing of demarcation, showing that the timing of these processes seems to be somewhat random and not caused by observable characteristics of the territories.

    “BenYishay et al. (27) also rely on the orthogonality in the timing of demarcation, proving that the timing of these processes seems to be somewhat random and not caused by observable characteristics of the territories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites BenYishay et al. [27] BenYishay A., Heuser S., Runfola D., Trichler R., Indigenous land rights and deforestation: Evidence from the Brazilian Amazon. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 86, 29–47 (2017). [Google Scholar] source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Materials and Methods

    The timing of homologation is orthogonal and can be treated as if randomly determined.

    “We exploit the orthogonality in the timing of homologation to identify the effect of property rights.”
    • Also stated in: § Materials and Methods · hedged
      “We thus divide our data into three groups which are as if randomly determined due to the year of homologation variable”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
23 of 23

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The potential outcomes of deforestation are continuous at the indigenous territory border, so pixels just inside and outside the border are comparable except for property rights.

    “The RDD ensures that we are comparing pixels that are almost identical to each other, other than for the fact that some are inside homologated territories while others are not.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Demarcated but nonhomologated territories are valid control groups for similar demarcated and homologated territories.

    “Plots of land that have been demarcated but not homologated serve as good control groups for those similar plots that have been demarcated and homologated.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Possible confounders are continuous around the cutoff; assignment to treatment relies only on the running variable, distance to border, and is orthogonal to any other variable that might be generating deforestation.

    “An important assumption of the regression discontinuity model is that possible confounders should be continuous around the cutoff. In other words, assignment to treatment should rely only on the running variable, distance to border, and be orthogonal to any other variable that might be generating the outcome, in this case, deforestation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Observations right inside the territory are similar to observations right outside of the territory.

    “Observations right inside the territory are expected to be similar to observations right outside of the territory.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • The stated significant discontinuity is assigned to the wrong group

    Minor

    The paper identifies Fig. 3A as nonhomologated territories, yet says it is the only plot with a clear, significant discontinuity. That reverses the paper's stated finding that the effect is absent without full property rights.

  • Larger bandwidths contain fewer observations

    Minor

    For the after-homologation linear and quadratic estimates, the reported observation count falls when the bandwidth doubles: from 17,969 to 10,574 and from 20,188 to 17,506, respectively. Doubling a distance-to-border bandwidth for the same subgroup cannot exclude observations already within it.

2 of 2

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Authors
Baragwanath, K., & Bayi, E.
Affiliations
  • University of California San Diego (US)
  • Columbia University (US)
Corresponding author
Baragwanath, Kathryn
ORCID
Venue
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Publisher
National Academy of Sciences
Published
2020-08-11
Volume
117
Issue
34
Pages
20495-20502
ISSN
  • 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
  • 1091-6490
DOI
10.1073/pnas.1917874117
PMC
PMC7456116
OpenAlex
W3048450790
Semantic Scholar
86ec7677cbf346a32b7915b6f0da0926fe63a695
Cited by
230
References
42
Citations by year
2026: 36 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 1
FWCI
10.60
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.pnas.org/site/aboutpnas/licenses.xhtml (vor, 184 d)
Locations
  • Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Land Rights and Reforms
  • Social Sciences › Anthropology › Indigenous Cultures and History
Keywords
deforestation, indigenous property rights, indigenous territories, common-pool resources, homologation, land tenure, Amazon rainforest, climate change mitigation, forest conservation, indigenous rights, Brazil
MeSH terms
Indigenous Peoples, Brazil, Conservation of Natural Resources, Humans, Human Rights, Ownership, Rainforest

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