The DOI matches its Crossref record; 55 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Eating frequency: methodological and dietary aspects
Open accessAbstract
It is commonly stated that ‘snack’ foods provide ‘empty calories’ and, therefore elevate energy intake whist providing insignificant quantities of other nutrients. The data presented in the present review suggest that foods which contribute to the pattern of ‘snacking’ contribute significantly to the nutrient quality of the diet. Those who ‘snack’ frequently tend to eat more food in general. Part of the difficulty in identifying the nutritional implications of ‘snacking’ is related to the definitions of ‘meals’ and ‘snacks’ and subsequent categorization of individual patterns. The physiological definitions typically relating to energy content or the time of eating do not necessarily coincide with colloquial, cultural or individual perceptions of what constitutes a ‘meal’ or ‘snack’. Clearly, a more consistent approach would facilitate interpretation of the literature and enable more effective health education messages about ‘snacking’ to be delivered.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“It is also subject to bias of the researcher, as the time intervals to define a meal or snack are often based on their understanding of eating patterns, potentially influenced by local or cultural factors( 44 )”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“it is not standardised due to subjectivity in participants' allocation of an eating event as a meal or snack( 44 , 48 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“Although it is widely acknowledged that different definitions used to define meals/snacks are likely to hamper interpretation of findings across studies( 8 , 44 ), research explicitly examining the impact of these different definitions is rare( 55 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [44]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Goldberg, G. R., Black, A., Jebb, S. A., Cole, T. J., Pr, M., Coward, W. A., & Prentice, A. M. (1991) · PubMed · Cited by 1,927
The dietary and nutritional survey of British adults
(1990) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/0924-2244(90)90106-9 · Cited by 884
Black, A., Goldberg, G. R., Jebb, S. A., Livingstone, M. B. E., Cole, T. J., & Prentice, A. (1991) · PubMed · Cited by 537
Nibbling versus gorging: metabolic advantages of increased meal frequency
Jenkins, D. J. A., Wolever, T. M. S., Vuksan, V., Brighenti, F., Cunnane, S. C., Rao, A. V., Jenkins, A. L., Buckley, G., Patten, R., Singer, W., et al. (1989) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm198910053211403 · Cited by 467
Dietary fat:carbohydrate ratio and obesity in middle-aged men
Dreon, D., Frey-Hewitt, B., Ellsworth, N., Williams, P., Terry, R., & Wood, P. (1988) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/47.6.995 · Cited by 340
Meal frequency and energy balance
Bellisle, F., McDevitt, R., & Prentice, A. M. (1997) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1079/bjn19970104 · Cited by 279
Social facilitation of duration and size but not rate of the spontaneous meal intake of humans
de Castro, J. M. (1990) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(90)90363-9 · Cited by 207
Genetic influences on daily intake and meal patterns of humans
de Castro, J. M. (1993) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(93)90188-l · Cited by 152
de Castro, J. M. (1993) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(93)90370-u · Cited by 141
Snacking patterns among 1,800 adults and children
Cross, A. T., Babicz, D., & Cushman, L. F. (1994) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/0002-8223(94)92542-9 · Cited by 141
Weight concerns and eating patterns: a survey of university students in Europe.
Bellisle, F., Monneuse, M.-O., Steptoe, A., & Wardle, J. (1995) · PubMed · Cited by 136
Feeding conditions and intermeal relationships
Levitsky, D. A. (1974) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(74)90014-6 · Cited by 129
Metzner, H., Lamphiear, D., Wheeler, N., & Larkin, F. (1977) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/30.5.712 · Cited by 125
Jenkins, D., Ocana, A., Jenkins, A., Wolever, T., Vuksan, V, Katzman, L., Hollands, M., Greenberg, G., Corey, P., & Patten, R. (1992) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/55.2.461 · Cited by 123
(1995) · PubMed · Cited by 108
Meal pattern analysis: artifacts, assumptions and implications
Castonguay, T. W., Kaiser, L. L., & Stern, J. S. (1986) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/0361-9230(86)90252-2 · Cited by 106
Snacking patterns in obese French women
Basdevant, A., Craplet, C., & Guy-Grand, B. (1993) · Appetite · doi:10.1006/appe.1993.1033 · Cited by 106
Studies of the Dietary Habits, Food Consumption and Nutrient Intakes of Adolescents and Young Adults
Bull, N. L. (2015) · World review of nutrition and dietetics · doi:10.1159/000416396 · Cited by 102
Effect of isoenergetic intake of three or nine meals on plasma lipoproteins and glucose metabolism
Arnold, L., Ball, M., Duncan, A., & Mann, J. (1993) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/57.3.446 · Cited by 102
Effect of meal frequency and timing on physical performance
Hawley, J. A., & Burke, L. M. (1997) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1079/bjn19970107 · Cited by 99
Truswell, A. S., & Darnton‐Hill, I. (2009) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.1981.tb06736.x · Cited by 98
Assessment of food intakes: are we measuring what people eat?
Livingstone, M. B. E. (1995) · PubMed · Cited by 81
Cultural aspects of meals and meal frequency
Chiva, M. (1997) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1079/bjn19970101 · Cited by 78
Fermentation of non-digestible oligosaccharides by human colonic bacteria
Gibson, G. R., Willems, A. L., Reading, S., & COLLINS, M. D. (1996) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1079/pns19960087 · Cited by 77
Meal patterns in “free-running” humans
Bernstein, I. L., Zimmerman, J. C., Czeisler, C. A., & Weitzman, E. D. (1981) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(81)90232-8 · Cited by 75
Estimates of food and macronutrient intake in a random sample of Northern Ireland adolescents
Strain, J. J., Robson, P. J., Livingstone, M. B. E., Primrose, E. D., Savage, J. M., Cran, G. W., & Boreham, C. A. G. (1994) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1079/bjn19940038 · Cited by 69
Dietary patterns among adolescents in the West of Scotland
Anderson, A. S., MacIntyre, S., & West, P. (1994) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1079/bjn19940116 · Cited by 67
Appalachian adolescents' eating patterns and nutrient intakes
Skinner, J. D., Salvetti, N. N., Ezell, J. M., Penfield, M. P., & COSTELLO, C. A. (1985) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/s0002-8223(21)03764-0 · Cited by 66
MEAL FREQUENCY AND ISCHÆMIC HEART-DISEASE
Fábry, P., Fodor, J., Hejl, Z., Geizerová, H., & Balcarová, O. (1968) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(68)92622-6 · Cited by 53
Nutrition and the quality of life: a measure for the outcome of nutritional intervention?
Schlettwein-Gsell, D. (1992) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/55.6.1263s · Cited by 51
The impact of industrialization on meal patterns in Vienna, Austria
Rotenberg, R. (1981) · Ecology of Food and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/03670244.1981.9990653 · Cited by 51
EATING BETWEEN MEALS-A NUTRITION PROBLEM AMONG TEENAGERS?
Thomas, J.-A., & Call, D. L. (2009) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.1973.tb05153.x · Cited by 40
A new approach for evaluation of meal quality and meal patterns
Lennernäs, M. A. ‐., Åkerstedt, T., Hagman, U., Bruce, Å., & Hambræus, L. (1993) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1111/j.1365-277x.1993.tb00370.x · Cited by 34
Garcia, S. E., Kaiser, L., & Dewey, K. G. (1990) · PubMed · Cited by 33
Sugars consumption by 379 11–12‐year‐old English children in 1990 compared with results in 1980
Rugg-Gunn, A. J., Adamson, A., Appleton, D. R., Butler, T. J., & Hackett, A. F. (1993) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1111/j.1365-277x.1993.tb00387.x · Cited by 33
Appalachian adolescents' snack patterns: Morning, afternoon, and evening snacks
Ezell, J. M., Skinner, J. D., & Penfield, M. P. (1985) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/s0002-8223(21)03821-9 · Cited by 33
Kulesza, W. (1982) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/s0195-6663(82)80037-8 · Cited by 30
The dietary intake of added and natural sugars in 405 English adolescents.
Rugg-Gunn, A. J., Hackett, A. F., Appleton, D. R., & Moynihan, P. J. (1986) · PubMed · Cited by 28
Selection of Snack Foods from Vending Machines by High School Students
Hruban, J. A. (1977) · Journal of School Health · doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.1977.tb01007.x · Cited by 26
Influence of shift work on time and frequency of meal taking.
Takagi, K. (1972) · PubMed · Cited by 25
HUNGER AND SATIETY SENSATIONS IN MEN, WOMEN, BOYS AND GIRLS: A PRELIMINARY REPORT*
Monello, L. F., Seltzer, C. C., & Mayer, J. (1965) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1965.tb34822.x · Cited by 25
Plasma vitamins A and E and red blood cell fatty acid profile in newborns and their mothers.
Hw, C., Ck, L., Cc, O., Yc, W., Bj, K., & Ch, L. (1996) · PubMed · Cited by 24
Snacking patterns and nutrient density of snacks consumed by southern girls
McCoy, H., Moak, S. W., KENNEY, M. A., Kirby, A., Chopin, L. F., Billon, W. E., Clark, A., Disney, G. W., Ercanli, F. G., GLOVER, E. E., et al. (1986) · Journal of Nutrition Education · doi:10.1016/s0022-3182(86)80228-x · Cited by 23
Dietary behaviour of an adolescent French male population
Spyckerelle, Y., Herbeth, B., & Deschamps, J. (1992) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1111/j.1365-277x.1992.tb00151.x · Cited by 22
Food intake at age 8 3. Distribution and food density by meal
Magarey, A., NICHOLS, J., & Boulton, J. (1987) · Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1754.1987.tb00253.x · Cited by 19
Ruxton, C. H. S., Kirk, T. R., & Belton, N. R. (1996) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1046/j.1365-277x.1996.00430.x · Cited by 18
Children's frequency of eating, total sugar intake and weight/height stature
Morgan, K. J., Johnson, S. R., & Stampley, G. L. (1983) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/s0271-5317(83)80092-x · Cited by 17
Three score years ... and then
Davies, L. (1981) · Cited by 17
The pattern of food consumption related to energy intake
McBride, A., Wise, A., McNeill, G., & James, W. P. T. (1990) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1111/j.1365-277x.1990.tb00224.x · Cited by 10
Relationship between snack and meal consumption
Morgan, K. J., Johnson, S. R., & Stampley, G. L. (1988) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/s0271-5317(88)80151-9 · Cited by 9
Fat and sugar substitutes: implications for dietary intakes and energy balance
Mela, D. J. (1997) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1079/pns19970090 · Cited by 9
Ene‐Obong, H. N. (1993) · Ecology of Food and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/03670244.1993.9991336 · Cited by 8
The eating and snacking patterns of young people in Brisbane, Australia
Dugdale, A. E., Townsend, B., & Rigsby, B. (1988) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1111/j.1365-277x.1988.tb00441.x · Cited by 4
Newer Knowledge on the Treatment of Obesity
Debry, G. (1978) · Forum of nutrition/Bibliotheca Nutritio et dieta · doi:10.1159/000401131 · Cited by 3
Information and support for overseas members
New, S., & Burgess, A. W. (1997) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1079/pns19970021 · Cited by 1
Flagged first, then by citations
3 of the 58 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 20
- Mela, 1997, Honest but invalid: consumer views on recording their food intake, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 56, 53A
- Hansen, 1980, Expression of nutrient allowances per 1000 kcal, Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 25, 223
- 1989, The Diets of British Schoolchildren. Report on Health and Social Subjects
- Gregory, 1995, National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Children Aged 1½ to 4½ Years. vol. 1, Report of the Diet and Nutrition Survey
- 1986, What is America Eating?
- Gatenby, 1995, ‘Meals’ and ‘snacks’: implications for eating patterns in adults, Appetite, 24, 292
- 1984, Eating in the Early 1980s. Attitudes and Behaviour
- New, 1997, Frequency of consumption of biscuits, cakes and confectionery: relationship with nutrient intake, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 56, 157A
- Bolton-Smith, 1997, The relationship between confectionery consumption, physical activity and BMI in a Scottish population, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 56, 158A
- Gibson, 1996, Consumption of cakes, biscuits and confectionery in British schoolchildren: association with nutrient intakes, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 55, 121A
- 1991, Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the United Kingdom. Report of the Panel on Dietary Reference Values of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy. Report on Health and Social Subjects
- New, 1996, Relationship between biscuit, cake and confectionery consumption to body mass index and energy intake in Scottish females, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 55, 122A
- Livingstone, 1991, Children's food and snacking, CHO International Dialogue on Carbohydrates, 2, 1
- Poppitt, 1995, Is under-reporting of energy intake in obese women macronutrient specific? Covert measurements in a metabolic facility, International Journal of Obesity, 19, 29
- 1985, Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals: Men 19–50 years and Children 1–5 years, I day, 1985, National Food Consumption Survey Report
- Musgrave, 1981, Strategies for measuring adolescent snacking patterns, Nutrition Reports International, 24, 557
- Robson, 1991, Snack energy and nutrient intakes of Northern Ireland adolescents, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 50, 180A
- Ruxton, 1994, Few differences in mean daily intake associated with a high intake of snacks in schoolchildren, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 53, 253A
- Schlettwein-Gsell, 1996, Euronut SENECA Investigators. Longitudinal changes in dietary habits and attitudes of elderly Europeans, European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 50, 556
- Schlettwein-Gsell, 1991, Euronut SENECA investigators. Dietary habits and attitudes, European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 45, 83
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Markers of the Validity of Reported Energy Intake
Livingstone, M. B. E., & Black, A. E. (2003) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/133.3.895s · Cited by 1,081
Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality
Leech, R. M., Worsley, A., Timperio, A., & McNaughton, S. A. (2015) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422414000262 · Cited by 379
Bertéus Forslund, H., Torgerson, J. S., Sjöström, L., & Lindroos, A. K. (2005) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802950 · Cited by 332
Zizza, C., Siega-Riz, A. M., & Popkin, B. M. (2001) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1006/pmed.2000.0817 · Cited by 332
Meal frequency and energy balance
Bellisle, F., McDevitt, R., & Prentice, A. M. (1997) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1079/bjn19970104 · Cited by 279
Metadata
- Authors
- Gatenby, S. J.
- Corresponding author
- Gatenby, Susan J.
- Venue
- British Journal of Nutrition
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 1997-04
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- S1
- Pages
- S7-S20
- ISSN
- 0007-1145 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-2662
- OpenAlex
- W2036961767
- Cited by
- 180
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 1.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- British Journal Of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Dietary Effects on Health
- Keywords
- meal frequency, snacking, meal patterns, snacks, empty calories, energy intake, nutrient intake, dietary assessment, health education
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Feeding Behavior, Female, Food, Food Preferences, Humans, Male, Nutritional Physiological Phenomena, Nutritive Value, Periodicity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
