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Food-frequency questionnaires: a review of their design, validation and utilisation
Open accessAbstract
A review of the literature concerning the design, utilisation and validation of food-frequency questionnaires (FFQ) has been carried out using a semi-systematic approach to obtaining, reviewing and extracting data from articles. Databases were searched from 1980 to 1999. The present review identified 227 validation (from 1980 to September 1999) and 164 utilisation (for 1998 only) studies. A number of design issues have been evaluated through the present review. These include: the need to consider how portion sizes have been described, self-defined giving higher mean correlations; how an FFQ was administered, interviewer-administered giving higher mean correlations for some nutrients; how many items to include on an FFQ, those with the largest number of items having higher correlations. Validation techniques were described. Most validation studies involved comparing an FFQ against another dietary assessment method; only 19 % compared an FFQ to a biomarker. Measurement differences were most commonly assessed by correlation coefficients as opposed to other more appropriate methods. Mean correlation coefficients were highest for Ca and fat, and lowest for vitamin A and vegetables. The utilisation studies showed that FFQ were most commonly used in cross-sectional surveys, with ninety-three of the FFQ being designed to be disease-specific. The present review results were presented to a group of experts and a consensus arrived at concerning the development, validation and use of FFQ. Recommendations derived from the consensus arising from the literature review are presented as an appendix to the present paper.
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“FFQ are generally validated against existing dietary assessment methods, such as WFR [19], and several FFQ have been validated for electronic and online use recently [14,20-22].”
From Online dietary intake estimation: reproducibility and validity of the Food4Me Food frequency questionnaire against a 4-day weighed food record (2014) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“Use of tools that allow participants to report their own portion sizes tend to report higher correlation coefficients between repeat administrations [19].”
From Online dietary intake estimation: reproducibility and validity of the Food4Me Food frequency questionnaire against a 4-day weighed food record (2014) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“The average reported correlation coefficient for crude total fat intake using FFQs repeated after 1 month or less was .68 [19], which compares very favorably with the correlation coefficient of .81 in the present study, showing above-average performance for the Food4Me FFQ.”
From Online dietary intake estimation: reproducibility and validity of the Food4Me Food frequency questionnaire against a 4-day weighed food record (2014) · cites this paper as [19]
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Reproducibility and comparative validity of a food frequency questionnaire for Australian adults
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“We have not addressed or discussed common FFQ issues, such as the number of items in a food list or the use of a single average portion size, as these are not the focus of this paper and have been reviewed previously.(24) 25 It is anticipated that future updates of FETA might contain a number of improvements and overc…”
MethodStreppel, M. T., de Vries, J. H. M., Meijboom, S., Beekman, M., de Craen, A. J. M., Slagboom, P. E., & Feskens, E. J. M. (2013) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-12-75 · Cited by 234
“Therefore, validation studies should be performed to examine the degree to which the FFQ agrees with the subjects’ true intake [3].”
BackgroundResultWatson, J., Collins, C. E., Sibbritt, D. W., Dibley, M. J., & Garg, M. L. (2009) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-6-62 · Cited by 224
Climate change and the hydropower sector: A global review
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“68 [19], which compares very favorably with the correlation coefficient of .”
Measuring dietary intake in children and adolescents in the context of overweight and obesity
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“A sample size of at least 50 is desirable for each demographic group [32], and ideally between 100 and 200 participants [33].”
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“Cade et al. (2004) and Tsubono et al. (1995) have shown that correlation coefficients between repeat administrations of a FFQ are lower (0.06–0.15 lower) when the questionnaire is repeated after a long time interval (from 6 months to 1 year later) compared with a shorter time interval (1–6 months).”
BackgroundInfluentialMarks, G. C., Hughes, M. C. B., & van der Pols, J. C. (2006) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/136.2.459 · Cited by 174
The Beverage Intake Questionnaire: Determining Initial Validity and Reliability
Hedrick, V. E., Comber, D. L., Estabrooks, P. A., Savla, J. T., & Davy, B. M. (2010) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.05.005 · Cited by 184
Bountziouka, V., Bathrellou, E., Giotopoulou, A., Katsagoni, C. N., Bonou, M. S., Vallianou, N. G., Barbetseas, J. D., Avgerinos, P. C., & Panagiotakos, D. B. (2011) · Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2010.10.015 · Cited by 167
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On Food Frequency Questionnaires
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“Food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) are a helpful instrument to ascertain usual dietary intake and its relationship with health and disease outcomes [7, 8].”
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Anjos, T. G., Altmäe, S., Emmett, P. M., Tiemeier, H. W., Closa‐Monasterolo, R., Luque, V., Wiseman, S. A., Pérez-Garcı́a, M., Lattka, E., Demmelmair, H., et al. (2013) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-013-0560-4 · Cited by 144
“6 months or a year) have been used [107, 108].”
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“The simple FFQ used in this study gives a less accurate assessment of diet compared with more comprehensive FFQs and detailed food diaries.(25,26) This limitation would underestimate the strength of any association between diet and outcomes.”
MethodKowalkowska, J., Wądołowska, L., Czarnocińska, J., Człapka-Matyasik, M., Galiński, G., Jeżewska-Zychowicz, M., Bronkowska, M., Długosz, A., Łoboda, D., & Wyka, J. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10121845 · Cited by 142
“Reproducibility and validation studies conducted previously among Poles were carried out in smaller samples [22–25,42], included solely young women or FFQs were developed for specific nutrient intake only [22–25].”
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“A number of FFQs have been proposed, with the number of items ranging from 5 to 350, thus varying from very easy, but imprecise, questionnaires (as was our short-FFQ) to very accurate questionnaires, which are, however, time-consuming and stressful for the participant (Cade et al., 2004).”
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Azizifard, N., Morales, G. D. F., Mejova, Y., & Schifanella, R. (2021) · EPJ Data Science · doi:10.1140/epjds/s13688-021-00273-y · Cited by 147
“Existing studies around cultural capital and nutrition use small-scale, traditional methodologies [10, 22–25] such as food diaries, questionnaires [26, 27], and surveys [21, 28].”
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Identifying Sex-Specific Risk Factors for Low Bone Mineral Density in Adolescent Runners
Tenforde, A. S., Fredericson, M., Sayres, L. C., Cutti, P., & Sainani, K. L. (2015) · The American Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1177/0363546515572142 · Cited by 121
“The food frequency questionnaire does not allow for an accurate measure of energy availability, although it strongly detects differences in calcium consumption.(13) The relatively smaller sample size of male runners may have limited statistical power to detect less robust risk factors for impaired bone health.”
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“They are commonly used to measure dietary intake in large populations for epidemiological studies, as they place less burden on the respondent and are usually less expensive and more easily administered than other methods of dietary assessment [1,2].”
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“The choice of reference method relied on the hypothesis that food habits may vary over seasons, thus we preferred to cover a longer period of time and administered six 24-h recalls over a period of 10 months (bimonthly) rather than a 3-day recall (one of the most common reference method) (Cade et al. 2004).”
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“First, we observed an association between the number of questionnaire items on the FFQ and the strength of the correlation, which was unexpected because research has suggested that the number of items does not affect validity (50).”
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“Dietary intake (μg/day) Healthy (1) Overweight (2) Obese (3) Total Healthy to overweight Healthy to obese Overweight to obese”
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“55 for calcium, a range similar in magnitude to what was obtained in the present study [14].”
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“Reproducibility of nutrient intake among the elderly has been reported to be particularly high((6,25)) as older people may be more established in their dietary habits than younger groups((25)).”
BackgroundGerritsen, S., Egli, V., Roy, R., Haszard, J., Backer, C. J. S. D., Teunissen, L., Cuykx, I., Decorte, P., Pabian, S., Royen, K. V., et al. (2020) · Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand · doi:10.1080/03036758.2020.1841010 · Cited by 96
“An additional limitation to note was that the food frequency questionnaire did not collect standard serves (often obtained with photo showcards to improve consistency in reporting (Cade et al. 2004)) but instead asked for portion by frequency of intake, which makes it challenging to assess dietary intake accurately.”
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“However, FFQs are prone to both systematic and random errors, which may lead to misclassification and attenuation of diet–disease associations (Willett, 1998; Cade et al., 2004).”
BackgroundTracking of food and nutrient intake from adolescence into early adulthood
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Relative validation of the KiGGS Food Frequency Questionnaire among adolescents in Germany
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“One main reason may be that it facilitates comparisons with other study results [39].”
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“Firstly, use of FFQs to collect food consumption data led to overreporting of food intake (Cade et al., 2004; Deschamps et al., 2009) and thus over-estimation of exposure, which is protective for risk assessment.”
Lafrenière, J., Laramée, C., Robitaille, J., Lamarche, B., & Lemieux, S. (2018) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980018001611 · Cited by 83
“In studies evaluating relative validity, authors often use similar established statistical approaches (18,19) .”
Jaceldo‐Siegl, K., Fan, J., Sabaté, J., Knutsen, S. F., Haddad, E. H., Beeson, W. L., Herring, R. P., Butler, T. L., Bennett, H., & Fraser, G. E. (2011) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980011000735 · Cited by 74
“Another likely explanation is social desirability bias((21)).”
Tayyem, R., AbuMweis, S. S., Bawadi, H. A., Agraib, L. M., & Bani-Hani, K. E. (2013) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jand.2013.08.019 · Cited by 75
“Paired t test was conducted to examine the differences between the 24-hour recalls and FFQ.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBiolato, M., Manca, F., Marrone, G., Cefalo, C., Racco, S., Miggiano, G. A. D., Valenza, V., Gasbarrini, A., Miele, L., & Grieco, A. (2019) · World Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.3748/wjg.v25.i4.509 · Cited by 78
Hörnell, A., Berg, C., Forsum, E., Larsson, C. L., Sonestedt, E., Åkesson, A., Lachat, C. K., Hawwash, D., Kolsteren, P. W., Byrnes, G. B., et al. (2017) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.3945/an.117.015941 · Cited by 77
Self-citationEngland, C. Y., Andrews, R. C., Jago, R., & Thompson, J. L. (2015) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2015.6 · Cited by 72
“However, best practice in food frequency questionnaire design involves pre-testing.(41) 288 All tools, except 1, were tested for relative validity against one or more reference measures, 289 although there was a wide variation in the design of studies, the variables used and the 290 statistical tests employed.”
InfluentialValidity and calibration of the FFQ used in the Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study
Bassett, J. K., English, D. R., Fahey, M. T., Forbes, A. B., Gurrin, L. C., Simpson, J. A., Brinkman, M. T., Giles, G. G., & Hodge, A. M. (2016) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980016000690 · Cited by 71
“(31) found that vege-table and vitamin A intakes showed the lowest correlation between the test FFQ and the dietary reference methods and noted this may be associated with the inclusion or exclusion of speci fi c vegetables rich in provitamin A carotenoids.”
Effect of a Fruit and Vegetable Prescription Program on Children’s Fruit and Vegetable Consumption
Ridberg, R. A., Bell, J. F., Merritt, K. E., Harris, D. M., Young, H. M., & Tancredi, D. J. (2019) · Preventing Chronic Disease · doi:10.5888/pcd16.180555 · Cited by 74
Exposure to food contaminants during pregnancy
Chan-Hon-Tong, A., Charles, M.-A. A., Forhan, A., et al. (2013) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.03.100 · Cited by 70
“In the EDEN study, the data have been collected with FFQs which may lead to overestimation of the exposure due to memorizing bias (Cade et al., 2004).”
MethodMagkos, F., Μanios, Y., Babaroutsi, E., & Sidossis, L. S. (2004) · Osteoporosis International · doi:10.1007/s00198-004-1679-1 · Cited by 72
“Generally, however, less than half of all FFQs being validated are tested for reproducibility [35, 36].”
BackgroundPalacios, C. S., Trak‐Fellermeier, M. A., Betancourt, J., JOSHIPURA, K. J., & Tucker, K. L. (2015) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980014003218 · Cited by 71
“For an FFQ to be valid, it should consist of a list of foods typically consumed by the population of interest, including estimation of the portion size and appropriate recipes for preparation of these foods; it should also use an adequate food composition database for calculating nutrients from the list of foods inclu…”
MethodZang, J., Luo, B., Chang, S.-Y., Jin, S., Shan, C., Ma, L., Zhu, Z., Guo, C., Zou, S., Jia, X., et al. (2019) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-019-0454-2 · Cited by 72
Weight-Loss Interventions for Hispanic Populations: The Role of Culture
Lindberg, N. M., Stevens, V. J., & Halperin, R. O. (2013) · Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1155/2013/542736 · Cited by 75
Adherence to dietary guidelines and 15-year risk of all-cause mortality.
Russell, J., Flood, V., Rochtchina, E., Gopinath, B., Allman-Farinelli, M., Bauman, A., & Mitchell, P. (2013) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114512001377 · Cited by 63
Flood, V. M., Wen, L. M., Hardy, L. L., Rissel, C. E., Simpson, J. M., & Baur, L. A. (2013) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980013000414 · Cited by 68
“In the case of the CDQ, the authors used a short frequency tool as a comparison dietary assessment method, rather than the more common method of food record or multiple 24h recalls((28)).”
MethodFruit intake and cardiovascular disease mortality in the UK Women’s Cohort Study
Lai, H. T. M., Threapleton, D. E., Day, A. J., Williamson, G., Cade, J. E., & Burley, V. J. (2015) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-015-0050-5 · Cited by 68
“Self-reported fruit intakes in the UKWCS (400 g/day) are well above the national average [58, 59] and other studies [11, 60], possibly due to overreporting through the FFQ in general [61], as observed in other cohort studies employing this method of dietary assessment [62].”
ResultSelf-citationHendrie, G. A., Baird, D., Golley, R. K., & Noakes, M. (2017) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu9010047 · Cited by 68
“The validation of FFQs has traditionally been in relation to energy and nutrient intakes but not food intake [5,6].”
BackgroundFausnacht, A. G., Myers, E. A., Hess, E. L., Davy, B. M., & Hedrick, V. E. (2020) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1111/jhn.12749 · Cited by 68
Wu, H., Gozdzik, A., Barta, J. L., et al. (2009) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2009.03.006 · Cited by 67
“The results are easy to collect and process and are taken to represent usual intakes [10,11].”
BackgroundJia, X., Craig, L. C. A., Aucott, L. S., Milne, A. C., & McNeill, G. (2008) · The journal of nutrition health & aging · doi:10.1007/bf03028622 · Cited by 65
“A review of FFQ design and validation suggested that the validity of a FFQ could be improved if the participants were able to define their own portion sizes ( 25 ).”
Garcia-Larsen, V., Luczyńska, M., Kowalski, M., Voutilainen, H., Ahlström, M., Haahtela, T., Toskala, E., Bockelbrink, A., Lee, H. H., Vassilopoulou, E., et al. (2011) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2011.15 · Cited by 63
Gwynn, J., Flood, V. M., D’Este, C. A., Attia, J., Turner, N. A., Cochrane, J., & Wiggers, J. (2010) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980010001928 · Cited by 64
“may be more appropriate to use cross-culturally and with low-income participants((10)) as well as with those who may be cautious about engaging in a study or for whom literacy is an issue((17)).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSiruguri, V., & Bhat, R. V. (2015) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-14-7 · Cited by 65
England, C. Y., Thompson, J. L., Jago, R., Cooper, A. R., & Andrews, R. C. (2016) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980016002275 · Cited by 69
“Habitual intake was compared with a ‘snapshot’ intake and it is important to emphasise that low agreement between the food diaries and the UKDDQ scores does not indicate that the UKDDQ is ‘inaccurate’((29)) since there is no ‘true’ measure of dietary intake((30)).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSaeedi, P., Skeaff, S. A., Wong, J. E., & Skidmore, P. M. L. (2016) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu8050271 · Cited by 66
“Correlation coefficients show the degree to which two administrations of the FFQ are associated, but not the agreement [43].”
BackgroundRodriguez, C. A., Smith, E., Villamor, E., Zavaleta, N., Respicio, G., Contreras, C. C., Perea, S., Jiménez, J., Tintaya, K., Lecca, L. W., et al. (2017) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu9101121 · Cited by 66
“One review of validation studies in children and adolescents found that 20–60 item questionnaires were associated with higher validity [6]; however, other reviews have suggested there is no effect of questionnaire length on validity [32].”
BackgroundFerrero, G., Carpi, S., Polini, B., Pardini, B., Nieri, P., Impeduglia, A., Grioni, S., Tarallo, S., & Naccarati, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2020.619200 · Cited by 62
“The FFQ consisted of 248 questions concerning 188 different food items and included photos with two or three sample dishes of definite sizes, or references to standard portion sizes.”
BackgroundInfluentialResearch into food portion size: methodological aspects and applications
Almiron‐Roig, E., Navas‐Carretero, S., Emery, P. W., & Martínez, J. A. (2017) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/c7fo01430a · Cited by 61
Validity of an FFQ to measure nutrient and food intakes in Tanzania
Zack, R. M., Irema, K., Kazonda, P., Leyna, G. H., Liu, E., Gilbert, S., Lukmanji, Z., Spiegelman, D. L., Fawzi, W. W., Njelekela, M. A., et al. (2018) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980018000848 · Cited by 64
“To account for this, we included ‘ handful ’ ( ujazo wa kiganja cha mkono in Swahili) as a serving size option in the FFQ. Previous FFQ validation studies have similarly found that correlations tend to be lower for vegetables than other food groups (22,25,44,46 – 48) .”
Gender analysis in the development and validation of FFQ: a systematic review
Lee, H., Kang, M., Song, W. O., Shim, J. E., & Paik, H. Y. (2015) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114515004717 · Cited by 59
Hafizah, Y. N., Ang, L. C., Yap, F., Nik, W. N. N. W., Cheah, W. L., Talib, R. A., Jumuddin, F. A., Koh, D., Lee, J. A. C., Essau, C. A., et al. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16234722 · Cited by 61
“Furthermore, the relationship between dietary intakes of a nutrient and its biomarker are not always direct and may be influenced by absorption [39].”
BackgroundSchneider, B. C., Motta, J. V. D. S., Muniz, L. C., Bielemann, R. M., Madruga, S. W., Orlandi, S. P., Gigante, D. P., & Assunção, M. C. F. (2016) · Revista Brasileira de Epidemiologia · doi:10.1590/1980-5497201600020017 · Cited by 60
Validation of a self-administered FFQ in adults in Argentina, Chile and Uruguay
Elorriaga, N., Irazola, V. E., Defagó, M. D., et al. (2014) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980013003431 · Cited by 57
“24HR have some similar error sources, like the reliance on memory and the perception of portion size((7,30,35)), although the FFQ relies on long-term memory and the 24HR on short-term memory.”
BackgroundInfluentialBrown, A. W., Aslibekyan, S. W., Bier, D. M., da Silva, R. F., Hoover, A. W., Klurfeld, D. M., Loken, E., Mayo‐Wilson, E., Menachemi, N., Pavela, G., et al. (2021) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1985427 · Cited by 63
A meta-analysis of the validity of FFQ targeted to adolescents
Tabacchi, G., Filippi, A. R., Amodio, E., Jemni, M., Bianco, A., Firenze, A., & Mammina, C. (2015) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980015002505 · Cited by 59
“Semi-quantitative FFQ are valid and reliable dietary assessment methods used worldwide on adolescents and are suggested as appropriate tools for the collection of dietary intake data in large-scale surveys((1,2)), since they have the advantages of ease of administration, saving of economic resources and ability to ass…”
MethodGregório, M. J., Rodrigues, A. M., Salvador, C., Dias, S. S., de Sousa, R. D., Mendes, J. M., Coelho, P. S., Branco, J., Lopes, C. M. M., Martínez‐González, M. Á., et al. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12051511 · Cited by 57
Eysteinsdóttir, T., Þórsdóttir, I., Gunnarsdóttir, I., & Steingrímsdóttir, L. (2012) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-11-12 · Cited by 59
Sam, C. H. Y., Skeaff, S. A., & Skidmore, P. M. L. (2012) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980012005058 · Cited by 58
“been shown to influence reliability((7,33)), it is appropriate”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKobayashi, S., Yuan, X., Sasaki, S., Osawa, Y., Hirata, T., Abe, Y., Takayama, M., Arai, Y., Masui, Y., & Ishizaki, T. (2018) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980018002331 · Cited by 55
“Dietary questionnaires can assess long-term dietary habits and are convenient for dietary surveys((13,14)).”
BackgroundValidation of a food frequency questionnaire to measure intakes of inulin and oligofructose
Dunn, S., Datta, A., Kallis, S., Law, E., Myers, C. E., & Whelan, K. (2010) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2010.272 · Cited by 55
“The FFQ demonstrated good validity, with population intakes almost identical to the FD and correlations between the two methods similar to those reported in other validation studies (Cade et al., 2004).”
BackgroundResultAoun, C., Daher, R. B., Osta, N. E., Papazian, T., & Khabbaz, L. R. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0218541 · Cited by 56
Cruwys, T., Norwood, R., Chachay, V., Ntontis, E., & Sheffield, J. K. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12040970 · Cited by 58
“Measured adherence was assessed using an adapted Food Frequency Questionnaire [33,34], which was revised and piloted with guidance from a dietitian (third author).”
MethodPattern analysis of vegan eating reveals healthy and unhealthy patterns within the vegan diet
Gallagher, C. T., Hanley, P., & Lane, K. E. (2021) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s136898002100197x · Cited by 53
“The validatedEPIC-Norfolk FFQ(29)wasmodified to includequestions representative of foods and drinks suitable for vegans.”
Bartoll, X., Toffolutti, V., Malmusi, D., Palència, L., Borrell, C., & Suhrcke, M. (2015) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2204-5 · Cited by 50
“Food frequency questionnaires have been reported as a valid instrument for ranking subjects according to their level of intake, but not for estimating absolute intake [47], and have been found to be closely related to health outcomes [48].”
BackgroundFlores, M., Macías, N., Rivera-Pasquel, M., et al. (2009) · Salud Pública de México · doi:10.1590/s0036-36342009001000009 · Cited by 50
Musaiger, A. O., Mufty, B. A., & Al-Hazzaa, H. M. (2014) · Food and Nutrition Bulletin · doi:10.1177/156482651403500102 · Cited by 50
“However, the qualitative food frequency method is widely used worldwide, with acceptable validity [12].”
BackgroundMethodNutrition and the homeless: the underestimated challenge
Seale, J. V., Fallaize, R., & Lovegrove, J. A. (2016) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422416000068 · Cited by 55
“drink consumed over, typically, the preceding 6 months or year((19)).”
BackgroundIntelligence in youth and health behaviours in middle age
Wraw, C., Der, G., Galé, C. R., & Deary, I. J. (2018) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2018.04.005 · Cited by 48
Metadata
- Authors
- Cade, J. E., Burley, V. J., Warm, D. L., Thompson, R. L., & Margetts, B. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Leeds (GB)
- University of Southampton (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Cade, J. E.
- Venue
- Nutrition Research Reviews
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2004-06
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-22
- ISSN
- 0954-4224 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-2700
- OpenAlex
- W2155756215
- Cited by
- 518
- References
- 214
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 66 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 2.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Nutrition Research Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutrition and Health Studies
- Keywords
- food frequency questionnaire, dietary assessment, questionnaire design, questionnaire validation, nutrient intake estimation, cross-sectional survey, disease-specific questionnaire, expert consensus recommendations
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