Cited by 1,591Urban Transport and AccessibilityTransportation Planning and OptimizationRailways and European Transport Policy

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Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany

Pucher, John, Buehler, Ralph·2008·Transport Reviews

DOI 10.1080/01441640701806612

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Abstract

This article shows how the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany have made bicycling a safe, convenient and practical way to get around their cities. The analysis relies on national aggregate data as well as case studies of large and small cities in each country. The key to achieving high levels of cycling appears to be the provision of separate cycling facilities along heavily travelled roads and at intersections, combined with traffic calming of most residential neighbourhoods. Extensive cycling rights of way in the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany are complemented by ample bike parking, full integration with public transport, comprehensive traffic education and training of both cyclists and motorists, and a wide range of promotional events intended to generate enthusiasm and wide public support for cycling. In addition to their many pro‐bike policies and programmes, the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany make driving expensive as well as inconvenient in central cities through a host of taxes and restrictions on car ownership, use and parking. Moreover, strict land‐use policies foster compact, mixed‐use developments that generate shorter and thus more bikeable trips. It is the coordinated implementation of this multi‐faceted, mutually reinforcing set of policies that best explains the success of these three countries in promoting cycling. For comparison, the article portrays the marginal status of cycling in the UK and the USA, where only about 1% of trips are by bike.

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CITIES AND THE NEW CLIMATE ECONOMY: THE TRANSFORMATIVE ROLE OF GLOBAL URBAN GROWTHPreprint
Floater, G., Rode, P., Robert, A., Kennedy, C., Hoornweg, D., Slavcheva, R., Godfrey, N., Friedel, B., Heeckt, C., Thomopoulos, N., et al. (2014) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 66
Space sharing between pedestrians and micro-mobility vehicles: A systematic review
Zhang, C., Du, B., Zheng, Z., & Shen, J. (2023) · Transportation Research Part D Transport and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.trd.2023.103629 · Cited by 65
The effect of environmental factors on bicycle commuters in Vermont: influences of a northern climate
Spencer, P. G., Watts, R., Vivanco, L. A., & Flynn, B. S. (2013) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2013.05.003 · Cited by 65
Bicycle Guidelines and Crash Rates on Cycle Tracks in the United States
Lusk, A., Morency, P., Miranda-Moreno, L., Willett, W. C., & Dennerlein, J. T. (2013) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2012.301043 · Cited by 65
“In the Netherlands, where there are 29 000 km of cycle tracks,(35) 27% of trips are made by bicycle and, of total bicycle trips, 55% are made by female bicyclists.(36) In Montreal, Canada, where cycle track networks were initiated 20 years ago and there are now 63 kilometers of on-road cycle tracks along with 173 kilo…”
Background
Bicycle superhighway: An environmentally sustainable policy for urban transport
Agarwal, A., Ziemke, D., & Nagel, K. (2019) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2019.06.015 · Cited by 65
Bicycling: Health risk or benefit?
Teschke, K., Reynolds, C. C. O., Ríes, F., Gouge, B., & Winters, M. (2012) · UBC Faculty of Medicine medical journal · Cited by 64
Residential relocation and travel behavior change: Investigating the effects of changes in the built environment, activity space dispersion, car and bike ownership, and travel attitudes
Ramezani, S., Hasanzadeh, K., Rinne, T. E., Kajosaari, A., & Kyttä, M. (2021) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2021.02.016 · Cited by 64
Bicycle Parking and Locking: Ethnography of Designs and Practices
Larsen, J. (2015) · Mobilities · doi:10.1080/17450101.2014.993534 · Cited by 64
“I first ‘discovered’ Copenhagen’s unique rack-bike-parking culture when I studied locks and racks in Amsterdam and New York City (for an earlier comparison of Amsterdam and Copenhagen as cycling cities, see Pucher and Buehler 2008).”
Background
Variations in active transport behavior among different neighborhoods and across adult life stages
Christiansen, L. B., Madsen, T. O., Schipperijn, J., Ersbøll, A. K., & Troelsen, J. (2014) · Journal of Transport & Health · doi:10.1016/j.jth.2014.10.002 · Cited by 64
“The IPEN walkability index, which consists of four built environment characteristics, was used to define 16 high and low walkable neighborhoods in Aarhus, Denmark (250.000 inhabitants).”
BackgroundInfluential
Bicycle injuries: A matter of mechanism and age
Siman‐Tov, M., Jaffe, D. H., & Peleg, K. (2010) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2010.10.006 · Cited by 64
Outdoor cycling activity affected by COVID-19 related epidemic-control-decisions
Schweizer, A.-M., Leiderer, A., Mitterwallner, V., Walentowitz, A., Mathes, G., & Steinbauer, M. J. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0249268 · Cited by 67
“The results presented in this paper are based on the information provided by one fitness app and thus the changes of outdoor cycling activities during lockdown are only partly reflected, although Strava is one of the most popular and widespread fitness apps in Germany.”
ResultInfluential
The E-Bike City as a radical shift toward zero-emission transport: Sustainable? Equitable? Desirable?
Ballo, L., de Freitas, L. M., Meister, A., & Axhausen, K. W. (2023) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2023.103663 · Cited by 68
Bicycle Riding, Walking, and Weight Gain in Premenopausal Women
Lusk, A. (2010) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2010.171 · Cited by 63
Travel Behavior in Aging Societies
Buehler, R., & Nobis, C. (2010) · Transportation Research Record Journal of the Transportation Research Board · doi:10.3141/2182-09 · Cited by 63
“Since the 1970s, most German cities have increased the attractiveness of cycling and walking by implementing traffic-calming measures in most neighborhoods, improving the pedestrian friendliness of downtown areas, and expanding networks of separate paths and lanes for bikes (40).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Meteorological variation in daily travel behaviour: evidence from revealed preference data from the Netherlands
Creemers, L., Wets, G., & Cools, M. (2014) · Theoretical and Applied Climatology · doi:10.1007/s00704-014-1169-0 · Cited by 63
“A better understanding of how frequently these weather events occur in the Netherlands is provided by various weather-related measures displayed in Table 2.”
ResultInfluential
Diversifying and normalising cycling in London, UK: An exploratory study on the influence of infrastructure
Aldred, R., & Dales, J. (2016) · Journal of Transport & Health · doi:10.1016/j.jth.2016.11.002 · Cited by 62
“In the Netherlands, women cycle a higher proportion of journeys than do men, and cycling remains a major mode into older age (Pucher and Buehler 2008).”
Background
Bicycle-friendly infrastructure planning in Beijing and Copenhagen - between adapting design solutions and learning local planning cultures
Zhao, C., Carstensen, T. A., Nielsen, T. A. S., & Olafsson, A. S. (2018) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2018.03.003 · Cited by 61
“…Pucher et al., 2011b) have found that sharing knowledge and experience enables cities with little bicycle infrastructure planning experience to learn from more experienced cities and accelerates the identification of effective design solutions (Pucher et al., 2011a; Pucher and Buehler, 2007, 2008).”
Background
Transport Policies, Automobile Use, and Sustainable Transport: A Comparison of Germany and the United States
Buehler, R. (2010) · Journal of Planning Education and Research · doi:10.1177/0739456x10366302 · Cited by 61
Self-citation
Exploring business model innovation for sustainability: an investigation of two product-service systems
Zomer, T. T. D. S., & Cauchick-Miguel, P. A. (2017) · Total Quality Management & Business Excellence · doi:10.1080/14783363.2017.1317588 · Cited by 67
“The systems implemented in developed countries have been fully integrated with public transportation networks (Pucher & Buehler, 2008).”
Background
Bicycle train intermodality: Effects of demography, station characteristics and the built environment
Weliwitiya, H., Rose, G., & Johnson, M. (2019) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2018.12.016 · Cited by 61
Preference for different urban greenscape designs: A choice experiment using virtual environments
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“As walking and cycling allow for more interaction with the environment than driving a car, even stronger effects could be expected in a country like the Netherlands because of its cycling and walking culture (Pucher and Buehler 2008, Fishman, Böcker et al. 2015).”
Background
Vélomobilities of care in a low-cycling city
Ravensbergen, L., Buliung, R. N., & Sersli, S. (2020) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2020.02.014 · Cited by 79
Associations between Recreational and Commuter Cycling, Changes in Cycling, and Type 2 Diabetes Risk: A Cohort Study of Danish Men and Women
Rasmussen, M. G. B., Grøntved, A., Blond, K., Overvad, K., Tjønneland, A. M., Jensen, M. K., & Østergaard, L. J. (2016) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002076 · Cited by 60
“Additionally, cycling is an environmentally sustainable mode of transport compared to motorized transportation [3].”
BackgroundMethod
Cyclists as a minority group?
Prati, G., Puchades, V. M., & Pietrantoni, L. (2017) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2017.04.008 · Cited by 60
Environmental determinants of cycling: Not seeing the forest for the trees?
Nello‐Deakin, S. (2020) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2020.102704 · Cited by 60
The Munich Bikeability Index: A Practical Approach for Measuring Urban Bikeability
Schmid-Querg, J., Keler, A., & Grigoropoulos, G. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13010428 · Cited by 59
Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on bike-sharing demand and hire time: Evidence from Santander Cycles in London
Heydari, S., Konstantinoudis, G., & Behsoodi, A. W. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0260969 · Cited by 59
Evaluating bicycle–vehicle conflicts and delays on urban streets with bike lane and on-street parking
Chen, J., Li, Z., Wang, W., & Jiang, H. (2016) · Transportation Letters · doi:10.1080/19427867.2016.1207365 · Cited by 59
“…as beneficial to environment and air quality, and gradually presents its considerable significance for the sustainable development of urban transport system (Martens 2004; Pucher and Buehler 2008, 2011; Li et al. 2012; Strauss et al. 2012; Melson, Duthie, and Boyles 2014; Fyhri and Fearnley 2015).”
Background
A behavioral modeling approach to bicycle level of service
Griswold, J. B., Yu, M., Filingeri, V. L., Grembek, O., & Walker, J. L. (2018) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2018.06.006 · Cited by 59
The Added Benefit of Bicycle Commuting on the Regular Amount of Physical Activity Performed
Donaire-González, D., de Nazelle, A. J., Cole‐Hunter, T., Curto, A., Rodríguez, D. A., Méndez, M. A., García‐Aymerich, J., Basagaña, X., Ambrós, A., Jerrett, M., et al. (2015) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.03.036 · Cited by 63
Benefits, risks, barriers, and facilitators to cycling: a narrative review
LOGAN, G. R. M., Somers, C., Baker, G., Connell, H., Gray, S. R., Kelly, P., McIntosh, E., Welsh, P. I., Gray, C. M., & Gill, J. M. R. (2023) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2023.1168357 · Cited by 70
“Figure 2 shows rates of cycling fatalities and injuries for cyclists, expressed per unit distance, from selected countries in 2004 to 2005 taken from a 2008 review by Pucher and Buehler (72).”
Background
A naturalistic study of commuter cyclists in the greater Stockholm area
Gustafsson, L., & Archer, J. (2012) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2012.06.004 · Cited by 58
Severity of urban cycling injuries and the relationship with personal, trip, route and crash characteristics: analyses using four severity metrics
Cripton, P. A., Shen, H., Brubacher, J. R., Chipman, M. L., Friedman, S., Harris, M. A., Winters, M., Reynolds, C. C. O., Cusimano, M. D., Babul, S., et al. (2015) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006654 · Cited by 58
“This 6 Cripton PA, et al. BMJ Open 2015;5:e006654. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006654 planning approach is supported by the results of our earlier analyses of injury risk: cycle tracks (bike lanes that physically separate cyclists and motor vehicle traffic) were associated with 1/9th the risk compared to streets with no…”
Influential
Latent Bicycle Commuting Demand and Effects of Gender on Commuter Cycling and Accident Rates
Kaths, H., Hall, F. L., & Bracic, B. (2010) · Transportation Research Record Journal of the Transportation Research Board · doi:10.3141/2190-04 · Cited by 58
Evaluation of the Veloway 1: A natural experiment of new bicycle infrastructure in Brisbane, Australia
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“Consistent with findings from Melbourne and other low-cycling regions (Bopp et al., 2012; Garrard et al., 2006; Garrard et al., 2008; Gatersleben and Appleton, 2007; Jakicic et al., 1999; Krizek et al., 2005; Pucher and Buehler, 2008; Twaddle et al., 2010), few women were observed cycling during the morning commuter p…”
BackgroundResult
Children's school commuting in the Netherlands: Does it matter how urban form is incorporated in mode choice models?
Helbich, M. (2016) · International Journal of Sustainable Transportation · doi:10.1080/15568318.2016.1275892 · Cited by 58
“We focused on the Netherlands, a country that is highly attuned to walking and cycling (Pucher & Buehler, 2008).”
Background
Attitudes towards active mobility in Singapore: A qualitative study
López, M. C. R., & Wong, Y. D. (2017) · Case Studies on Transport Policy · doi:10.1016/j.cstp.2017.07.002 · Cited by 58
“With these “soft” approaches, the goal of an active commuting culture and a lively society can be reached much faster (Ibeas et al., 2011; Methorst et al., 2010; Pucher and Buehler, 2008).”
Background
Violent mobilities: men, masculinities and road conflicts in Sweden
Balkmar, D. (2018) · Mobilities · doi:10.1080/17450101.2018.1500096 · Cited by 58
“While women in several European countries (such as Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany) ride bicycles (nearly) as much as do men (Pucher and Buehler 2008), women’s comparably lower rate of cycling in other countries can be related to risk aversion and lack of safe infrastructure (Emond,…”
Background
COVID-19 and cycling: a review of the literature on changes in cycling levels and government policies from 2019 to 2022
Buehler, R., & Pucher, J. R. (2023) · Transport Reviews · doi:10.1080/01441647.2023.2205178 · Cited by 68
“Moreover, in countries and cities with high levels of cycling, most bike trips are utilitarian (Pucher & Buehler, 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Understanding the fear of bicycle riding in Australia
Fishman, E. K., Washington, S. P., & Haworth, N. L. (2012) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 57

Authors: Pucher, J., & Buehler, R.
Affiliations: Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
Corresponding author: Pucher, John
ORCID: Pucher, John
Buehler, Ralph
Venue: Transport Reviews
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2008-07
Volume: 28
Issue: 4
Pages: 495-528
ISSN: 0144-1647 (ISSN-L)
1464-5327
DOI: 10.1080/01441640701806612
OpenAlex: W2164133872
Cited by: 1,591
References: 41
Citations by year: 2026: 58 · 2025: 83 · 2024: 78 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 134 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 122 · 2018: 111 · 2017: 100 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 119 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 94 · 2012: 75
FWCI: 135.96
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Transport Reviews (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Transportation › Urban Transport and Accessibility
Social Sciences › Transportation › Transportation Planning and Optimization
Social Sciences › Transportation › Railways and European Transport Policy
Keywords: cycling promotion, cycling infrastructure, traffic calming, bicycle parking, public transport integration, road safety education, motor vehicle tax, parking restrictions, land use policy, urban travel behavior, Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, United States

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Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany

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