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Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany
Abstract
This article shows how the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany have made bicycling a safe, convenient and practical way to get around their cities. The analysis relies on national aggregate data as well as case studies of large and small cities in each country. The key to achieving high levels of cycling appears to be the provision of separate cycling facilities along heavily travelled roads and at intersections, combined with traffic calming of most residential neighbourhoods. Extensive cycling rights of way in the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany are complemented by ample bike parking, full integration with public transport, comprehensive traffic education and training of both cyclists and motorists, and a wide range of promotional events intended to generate enthusiasm and wide public support for cycling. In addition to their many pro‐bike policies and programmes, the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany make driving expensive as well as inconvenient in central cities through a host of taxes and restrictions on car ownership, use and parking. Moreover, strict land‐use policies foster compact, mixed‐use developments that generate shorter and thus more bikeable trips. It is the coordinated implementation of this multi‐faceted, mutually reinforcing set of policies that best explains the success of these three countries in promoting cycling. For comparison, the article portrays the marginal status of cycling in the UK and the USA, where only about 1% of trips are by bike.
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“Indeed, 85% of the Dutch owns a bicycle and each year travels 900 km on it. 26”
From Physical exercise keeps the brain connected: biking increases white matter integrity in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls. (2015) · cites this paper as [26]
In the citing paper
“Biking is an endemic skill in the Netherlands and thus offers an ideal situation to disentangle the effects of learning vs practice.”
From Physical exercise keeps the brain connected: biking increases white matter integrity in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls. (2015) · cites this paper as [26]
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“Another strand of the literature has emphasized the importance of monetary costs, a central premise being that increases in the marginal costs of alternative modes, particularly for the automobile (Frondel and Vance, 2013), is among the most effective ways to increase bicycling (Pucher et al., 1999; Bergström and Magn…”
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“Focusing initiatives in active travel and leisure domains have proven effective in improving PA [33,41-45] and could help counteract projected declines in total PA.”
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Hirschhorn, F., Veeneman, W. W., & van de Velde, D. M. (2019) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2019.04.008 · Cited by 21
Estimating Latent Cycling Trips in Montreal, Canada
Godefroy, F., & Morency, C. (2012) · Transportation Research Record Journal of the Transportation Research Board · doi:10.3141/2314-16 · Cited by 17
“This effect has been observed in Europe, where a drastic decrease in accidents has been correlated to an increase in the number of cyclists (8, 26, 31, 33).”
BackgroundUnderstanding Gender Gap in Bike-Sharing Services via eXplainable Artificial Intelligence
Lee, E. H. (2025) · Transportation Research Record Journal of the Transportation Research Board · doi:10.1177/03611981251335900 · Cited by 16
“Several studies have indicated that considering various population groups, including women, seniors, people of color, and low-income residents is crucial to promoting bike-sharing usage ( 13 , 14 ).”
Cycling policy in strategic documents of Polish cities
Kwiatkowski, M. A., & Szymańska, D. (2020) · Environment Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-020-01060-x · Cited by 16
“2017b; Pucher and Buehler 2008).”
BackgroundMa, L., Ettema, D., & Ye, R. (2021) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2021.01.009 · Cited by 16
Students’ and Parents’ Perceptions of Barriers to Cycling to School—An Analysis by Gender
Higgins, R., & Ahern, A. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su132313213 · Cited by 16
Revisit employer-based travel demand management: A longitudinal analysis
Chen, P., & Yang, X. (2022) · Transport Policy · doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2022.11.014 · Cited by 15
MacEacheron, C., Hosford, K., Manaugh, K., Smith-Lea, N., Farber, S., & Winters, M. (2023) · Active Travel Studies · doi:10.16997/ats.1393 · Cited by 16
The Environmental and Population Health Benefits of Active Transport: A Review
Larouche, R. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/33001 · Cited by 18
“Trends in Australian children travelling to school 1971-2003: Burning petrol or carbohydrates?”
BackgroundInfluentialThe green dividend of urban biking? Evidence of improved community and sustainable development
Gilderbloom, J. I. “., Grooms, W., Mog, J., & Meares, W. L. (2015) · Local Environment · doi:10.1080/13549839.2015.1060409 · Cited by 16
Performance Evaluation of Extreme Bicycle Scenarios
Schweizer, J., & Rupi, F. (2014) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.084 · Cited by 16
Changing gears: bicycling as the panacea for physical inactivity?
Bauman, A. E., Titze, S., Rissel, C. E., & Oja, P. (2011) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsm.2010.085951 · Cited by 16
“There are individual, social and environmental barriers to cycling. Lack of perceived fitness, costs and skills are often mentioned barriers for physical activity, but they are not serious barriers for cycling, as most people are able to and can afford to ride a bike. ‘Lack of time’ is also offered as a barrier for ph…”
BackgroundHyperautomobility and Governmentality in Auckland
Hickman, R., Austin, P. M., & Banister, D. (2014) · Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning · doi:10.1080/1523908x.2014.954074 · Cited by 16
“Segregated cycle ways are used along arterials, and high-standard complete networks are very common in urban areas (Pucher & Buehler, 2008).”
Chapter 12 Conclusion: Towards a Revolution in Cycling
Horton, D., & Parkin, J. (2012) · Transport and sustainability · doi:10.1108/s2044-9941(2012)0000001014 · Cited by 16
Mapping Bicycle Crash Risk Patterns on the Local Scale
Loidl, M., Wallentin, G., Wendel, R., & Zagel, B. (2016) · Safety · doi:10.3390/safety2030017 · Cited by 16
“, [16,20]) reveals extensive variabilities in spatial and temporal coverage.”
BackgroundValidating crowdsourced bicycling mobility data for supporting city planning
Leao, S. Z., Lieske, S. N., & Pettit, C. J. (2017) · Transportation Letters · doi:10.1080/19427867.2017.1401198 · Cited by 16
“(Ellison and Greaves 2011; Pucher and Buehler 2008).”
BackgroundPhysical activity and the human body in the (increasingly smart) built environment
Ulijaszek, S. J. (2018) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12790 · Cited by 18
“Along with Canberra, Perth now has the highest proportion of all trips taken by bicycle among all major cities in Australia (although it still lags far behind cities in Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands) (27).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRevealing the cycling potential of starter cycling cities: Usefulness for planning practice
Silva, C., Teixeira, J. F., Proença, A. C., Bicalho, T., Cunha, I., & Aguiar, A. (2019) · Transport Policy · doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2019.05.011 · Cited by 16
Collaboration or competition: The impact of incentive types on urban cycling
Grajales, D. F. P., Degbelo, A., & Gould, M. D. (2019) · International Journal of Sustainable Transportation · doi:10.1080/15568318.2019.1627619 · Cited by 22
“The Amsterdam example is a well-documented case where active citizen participation formed in 1970 demanded bicycle and pedestrian-friendly development of the city; positive consequences of such events are still evident today in the city (Oldenziel et al., 2015).”
InfluentialAndersen, O. K., O’Halloran, S., Kolle, E., Lien, N., Lakerveld, J., Arah, O. A., & Gebremariam, M. K. (2021) · International Journal of Health Geographics · doi:10.1186/s12942-021-00258-0 · Cited by 16
Andersson, I., & Grundel, I. (2021) · Geoforum · doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2021.02.005 · Cited by 16
“In addition, research focused on sharing ‘best practice ’ in the green economy has so far mainly been limited to urban policy, investigating places such as Freiburg, Copenhagen, Vancouver, Singapore, etc. (Pucher and Buehler, 2008; Anderberg and Clark, 2013; McCann, 2013; Pow, 2014).”
BackgroundBikeway Provision and Bicycle Commuting: City-Level Empirical Findings from the US
Yang, Q., Cai, J., Feng, T., Liu, Z., & Timmermans, H. J. P. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13063113 · Cited by 18
“The most simplistic measures are the length of bikeways [4,6,18] and the frequency of bikeways [13], see Table 2.”
BackgroundInfluentialWałdykowski, P., Adamczyk, J., & Dorotkiewicz, M. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14010119 · Cited by 16
Park, J., Honda, Y., Fujii, S., & Kim, S. E. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14073861 · Cited by 16
Cycle training for children: Which schools offer it and who takes part?
Goodman, A., van Sluijs, E. M. F., & Ogilvie, D. (2015) · Journal of Transport & Health · doi:10.1016/j.jth.2015.07.002 · Cited by 16
“…high-cycling European countries such as the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany, and is also fairly widespread (although more variable in its regional coverage) in some lower-cycling countries such as France, the United States, Australia and New Zealand (Pucher and Buehler, 2008; Pucher et al., 2010).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Pucher, J., & Buehler, R.
- Affiliations
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- Corresponding author
- Pucher, John
- Venue
- Transport Reviews
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2008-07
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 495-528
- ISSN
- 0144-1647 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-5327
- OpenAlex
- W2164133872
- Cited by
- 1,591
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 58 · 2025: 83 · 2024: 78 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 134 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 122 · 2018: 111 · 2017: 100 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 119 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 94 · 2012: 75
- FWCI
- 135.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Transport Reviews (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Transportation › Urban Transport and Accessibility
- Social Sciences › Transportation › Transportation Planning and Optimization
- Social Sciences › Transportation › Railways and European Transport Policy
- Keywords
- cycling promotion, cycling infrastructure, traffic calming, bicycle parking, public transport integration, road safety education, motor vehicle tax, parking restrictions, land use policy, urban travel behavior, Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, United States
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