Cited by 1,591Urban Transport and AccessibilityTransportation Planning and OptimizationRailways and European Transport Policy

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Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany

Pucher, John, Buehler, Ralph·2008·Transport Reviews

DOI 10.1080/01441640701806612

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Abstract

This article shows how the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany have made bicycling a safe, convenient and practical way to get around their cities. The analysis relies on national aggregate data as well as case studies of large and small cities in each country. The key to achieving high levels of cycling appears to be the provision of separate cycling facilities along heavily travelled roads and at intersections, combined with traffic calming of most residential neighbourhoods. Extensive cycling rights of way in the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany are complemented by ample bike parking, full integration with public transport, comprehensive traffic education and training of both cyclists and motorists, and a wide range of promotional events intended to generate enthusiasm and wide public support for cycling. In addition to their many pro‐bike policies and programmes, the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany make driving expensive as well as inconvenient in central cities through a host of taxes and restrictions on car ownership, use and parking. Moreover, strict land‐use policies foster compact, mixed‐use developments that generate shorter and thus more bikeable trips. It is the coordinated implementation of this multi‐faceted, mutually reinforcing set of policies that best explains the success of these three countries in promoting cycling. For comparison, the article portrays the marginal status of cycling in the UK and the USA, where only about 1% of trips are by bike.

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Background
Gender differences in cycling patterns and attitudes towards cycling in a sample of European regular cyclists
Prati, G., Fraboni, F., Angelis, M. D., Pietrantoni, L., Johnson, D. R., & Shires, J. D. (2019) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2019.05.006 · Cited by 103
Environmental and Psychosocial Correlates of Accelerometer-Assessed and Self-Reported Physical Activity in Belgian Adults
Dyck, D. V., Cardon, G., Deforche, B. I., Giles‐Corti, B., Sallis, J. F., Owen, N. G., & Bourdeaudhuij, I. D. (2010) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-010-9127-4 · Cited by 101
“A possible explanation for the association between walkability and total PA found in this study could be that in Belgian adults, active transportation (which is usually found to be a correlate of walkability) is a large proportion of total PA. In other countries, and mainly in non-European countries, levels of active…”
Background
Using crowdsourced data to monitor change in spatial patterns of bicycle ridership
Boss, D., NELSON, T. A., Winters, M., & Ferster, C. (2018) · Journal of Transport & Health · doi:10.1016/j.jth.2018.02.008 · Cited by 101
“Cycling is a sustainable mode of transportation with numerous health, environmental and social benefits (Gordon-Larsen et al., 2005; Pucher and Buehler, 2008; Teschke et al., 2012).”
Background
Gender equality and women's participation in transport cycling
Prati, G. (2017) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.11.003 · Cited by 99
“However, it seems likely that socio-cultural and infrastructural factors influence these perceptions because the women's participation in transport cycling is relatively high in countries with a well-developed cycling culture (Pucher and Buehler, 2008).”
Background
Toward feminist geographies of cycling
Ravensbergen, L., Buliung, R. N., & Laliberté, N. (2019) · Geography Compass · doi:10.1111/gec3.12461 · Cited by 118
Cobenefits of Replacing Car Trips with Alternative Transportation: A Review of Evidence and Methodological Issues
Xia, T., Zhang, Y., Crabb, S., & Shah, P. (2013) · Journal of Environmental and Public Health · doi:10.1155/2013/797312 · Cited by 96
“Short trips also occupy a considerable percentage of total travel trips in major Australian cities.”
BackgroundInfluential
The Determinants of Tourist Use of Public Transport at the Destination
Gutiérrez, A., & Miravet, D. (2016) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su8090908 · Cited by 96
Go slow: an umbrella review of the effects of 20 mph zones and limits on health and health inequalities
Cairns, J., Warren, J., Garthwaite, K., Greig, G., & Bambra, C. L. (2014) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdu067 · Cited by 95
“For example in 2011/12, Burnley trialled 20mph zones (and saw reductions from 46 to 25 casualties).[7] The intention behind 20mph zones and limits is often multi-faceted but improving population health and reducing health inequalities by reducing accidents is often a key factor.”
Method
Of “white crows” and “cash savers:” A qualitative study of travel behavior and perceptions of ridesharing in Denmark
Nielsen, J. R., Hovmøller, H., Blyth, P.-L., & Sovacool, B. K. (2015) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2015.04.033 · Cited by 101
Capturing the conditions that introduce systematic variation in bike-sharing travel behavior using data mining techniques
Bordagaray, M. E., dell’Olio, L., Fonzone, A., & Ibeas, Á. (2016) · Transportation Research Part C Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1016/j.trc.2016.07.009 · Cited by 93
Energy and greenhouse gas emission reduction potentials resulting from different commuter electric bicycle adoption scenarios in Switzerland
Bucher, D., Buffat, R., Froemelt, A., & Raubal, M. (2019) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.109298 · Cited by 97
Maturing urban cycling: Comparing barriers and motivators to bicycle of cyclists and non-cyclists in Lisbon, Portugal
Félix, R., Moura, F., & Clifton, K. J. (2019) · Journal of Transport & Health · doi:10.1016/j.jth.2019.100628 · Cited by 112
“Furthermore, it is unusual to see bicycles parked outdoors at night due to the risk of theft, in contrast to cities with a higher bicycle modal share (Pucher and Buehler, 2008).”
Who cycles more? Determining cycling frequency through a segmentation approach in Montreal, Canada
Damant-Sirois, G., & El-Geneidy, A. (2015) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2015.03.028 · Cited by 91
Bicyclists’ preferences for route characteristics and crowding in Copenhagen – A choice experiment study of commuters
Vedel, S. E., Jacobsen, J. B., & Skov-Petersen, H. (2017) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2017.04.006 · Cited by 90
“…bicycles for commuting, and Copenhagen is often used as a role model for other large cities across the world, when searching for ways to promote commuting by bicycle and developing sustainable infrastructure of cities (Gössling, 2013; Pucher and Buehler, 2008; Municipality of Copenhagen, 2013).”
Background
Carrots versus Sticks: Assessing Intervention Effectiveness and Implementation Challenges for Active Transport
Piatkowski, D. P., Marshall, W. E., & Krizek, K. J. (2017) · Journal of Planning Education and Research · doi:10.1177/0739456x17715306 · Cited by 99
“…by US standards but lag far behind walking and bicycling rates in many European cities; in contrast, the rare US city that inherently features extensive deterrents to auto travel, New York City, finds pedestrian and transit mode shares comparable to European cities (Pucher and Buehler 2008).”
Background
A Spatial Analysis of Land Use and Network Effects on Frequency and Severity of Cyclist–Motorist Crashes in the Copenhagen Region
Kaplan, S., & Prato, C. G. (2015) · Traffic Injury Prevention · doi:10.1080/15389588.2014.1003818 · Cited by 90
Neighbourhood, Route and Workplace-Related Environmental Characteristics Predict Adults' Mode of Travel to Work
Dalton, A. M., Jones, A., Panter, J., & Ogilvie, D. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067575 · Cited by 89
“In order to develop environments more supportive of a modal shift towards more active travel at the population level, we therefore need to better understand the importance of characteristics of the home, work and journey environments [14,15].”
Background
The factors influencing car use in a cycle-friendly city: the case of Cambridge
Carse, A., Goodman, A., Mackett, R. L., Panter, J., & Ogilvie, D. (2012) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.10.013 · Cited by 89
“Other research has shown that increasing the cost of car travel (Pucher and Buehler, 2008), introducing improved cycling facilities and rights of way for cyclists (Parker et al., 2011; Pucher et al., 2010), and intensifying political pressure (Wachs, 1998) may all have a role in encouraging more…”
Background
Walking and Cycling in Western Europe and the United States: Trends, Policies, and Lessons
Buehler, R., & Pucher, J. R. (2012) · TR news · Cited by 89
Self-citation
Temporal, seasonal and weather effects on cycle volume: an ecological study
Tin, S. T., Woodward, A. J., Robinson, E., & Ameratunga, S. N. (2012) · Environmental Health · doi:10.1186/1476-069x-11-12 · Cited by 87
Household decision-making for everyday travel: a case study of walking and cycling in Lancaster (UK)
Pooley, C. G., Horton, D., Scheldeman, G., Tight, M., Jones, T. J., Chisholm, A., Harwatt, H., & Jopson, A. (2011) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2011.03.010 · Cited by 87
Injury incidence rates of cyclists compared to pedestrians, car occupants and powered two-wheeler riders, using a medical registry and mobility data, Rhône County, France
Blaizot, S., Papon, F., Haddak, M. M., & Amoros, E. (2013) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2013.04.018 · Cited by 87
Road crash fatality rates in France: A comparison of road user types, taking account of travel practices
Bouaoun, L., Haddak, M. M., & Amoros, E. (2014) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2014.10.025 · Cited by 86
Cycling through the COVID-19 Pandemic to a More Sustainable Transport Future: Evidence from Case Studies of 14 Large Bicycle-Friendly Cities in Europe and North America
Buehler, R., & Pucher, J. R. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14127293 · Cited by 86
Self-citation
Safety in numbers? Investigating Australian driver behaviour, knowledge and attitudes towards cyclists
Johnson, M., Oxley, J. A., Newstead, S., & Charlton, J. (2014) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2014.02.010 · Cited by 86
Cycling in Warsaw, Poland – Perceived enablers and barriers according to cyclists and non-cyclists
Iwińska, K., Blicharska, M., Pierotti, L., Tainio, M., & de Nazelle, A. J. (2018) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2018.04.014 · Cited by 85
Analysis of multi-modal commute behavior with feeding and competing ridesplitting services
Zhu, Z., Qin, X., Ke, J., Zheng, Z., & Yang, H. (2019) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2019.12.018 · Cited by 85
COVID-19 as a window of opportunity for cycling: Evidence from the first wave
Büchel, B., Marra, A. D., & Corman, F. (2021) · Transport Policy · doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2021.12.003 · Cited by 85
The Joy of Biking Together: Sharing Everyday Experiences of Vélomobility
McIlvenny, P. (2013) · Mobilities · doi:10.1080/17450101.2013.844950 · Cited by 84
“…2006; Krizek, El-Geneidy, and Thompson 2007; Oddy 2007; Skinner and Rosen 2007; Spinney 2007; Horton, Rosen, and Cox 2007a; Lorenc et al. 2008; Pucher and Buehler 2008; Spinney, 2008, 2009; Aldred 2010; Bonham and Koth 2010; Brown and Spinney 2010; Hopsicker 2010; Ilundáin-Agurruza and Austin…”
Background
Using a flexible multivariate latent class approach to model correlated outcomes: A joint analysis of pedestrian and cyclist injuries
Heydari, S., Fu, L., Miranda-Moreno, L., & Jopseph, L. (2016) · Analytic Methods in Accident Research · doi:10.1016/j.amar.2016.12.002 · Cited by 84
The contribution of active travel (walking and cycling) in children to overall physical activity levels: a national cross sectional study
Roth, M. A., Millett, C. J., & Mindell, J. S. (2011) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.12.004 · Cited by 83
Barriers to investing in cycling: Stakeholder views from England
Aldred, R., Watson, T., Lovelace, R., & Woodcock, J. (2017) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2017.11.003 · Cited by 82
A comparison of cycling cultures in Stockholm and Copenhagen
Haustein, S., Koglin, T., Nielsen, T., & Svensson, A. (2019) · International Journal of Sustainable Transportation · doi:10.1080/15568318.2018.1547463 · Cited by 72
“…order to decrease congestion and pollution and to increase their citizens’ health (Buehler & Pucher, 2012a, b; Fishman, 2016; Garrad et al., 2012; Handy, van Wee, & Kroesen, 2014; Lanzendorf & Busch-Geertsema, 2014; Pojani, Bakija, Shkreli, Corcoran, & Mateo-Babiano, 2017; Pucher & Buehler, 2008).”
Background
Bike Sharing and Urban Mobility in a Post-Pandemic World
Pase, F., Chiariotti, F., Zanella, A., & Zorzi, M. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.3030841 · Cited by 81
“The experience from these countries [15] shows that urban design plays a key role in encouraging cycling as a mode of transportation, not just bike sharing use.”
Background
School travel behaviour in the Netherlands and Flanders
Goeverden, C. D. V., & Boer, E. D. (2013) · Transport Policy · doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2013.01.004 · Cited by 81
An exploration of the importance of social influence in the decision to start bicycling in England
Sherwin, H., Chatterjee, K., & Jain, J. (2014) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2014.05.001 · Cited by 91
“This level is low relative to other Northern European countries (Pucher and Buehler 2008), despite a number of policies and investments to promote bicycling (Sherwin 2010).”
Circumstances leading to injurious falls in older men and women in the Netherlands
Boyé, N. D. A., Mattace-Raso, F. U. S., van der Velde, N., Lieshout, E. M. M. V., de Vries, O. J., Hartholt, K. A., Kerver, A. J. H., Bruijninckx, M. M. M., van der Velde, N., Patka, P., et al. (2014) · Injury · doi:10.1016/j.injury.2014.03.021 · Cited by 80
Choosing safe and suitable bicycle routes to integrate cycling and public transport systems
Saplıoğlu, M., & Aydın, M. M. (2018) · Journal of Transport & Health · doi:10.1016/j.jth.2018.05.011 · Cited by 79

Authors: Pucher, J., & Buehler, R.
Affiliations: Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
Corresponding author: Pucher, John
ORCID: Pucher, John
Buehler, Ralph
Venue: Transport Reviews
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2008-07
Volume: 28
Issue: 4
Pages: 495-528
ISSN: 0144-1647 (ISSN-L)
1464-5327
DOI: 10.1080/01441640701806612
OpenAlex: W2164133872
Cited by: 1,591
References: 41
Citations by year: 2026: 58 · 2025: 83 · 2024: 78 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 134 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 122 · 2018: 111 · 2017: 100 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 119 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 94 · 2012: 75
FWCI: 135.96
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Transport Reviews (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Transportation › Urban Transport and Accessibility
Social Sciences › Transportation › Transportation Planning and Optimization
Social Sciences › Transportation › Railways and European Transport Policy
Keywords: cycling promotion, cycling infrastructure, traffic calming, bicycle parking, public transport integration, road safety education, motor vehicle tax, parking restrictions, land use policy, urban travel behavior, Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, United States

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Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany

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