The DOI matches its Crossref record; 98 of the 98 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model
Abstract
The fear appeal literature is diverse and inconsistent. Existing fear appeal theories explain the positive linear results occurring in many studies, but are unable to explain the boomerang or curvilinear results occurring in other studies. The present work advances a theory integrating previous theoretical perspectives (i.e., Janis, 1967; Leventhal, 1970; Rogers, 1975, 1983) that is based on Leventhal's (1970) danger control/fear control framework. The proposed fear appeal theory, called the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), expands on previous approaches in three ways: (a) by explaining why fear appeals fail; (b) by re‐incorporating fear as a central variable; and (c) by specifying the relationship between threat and efficacy in propositional forms. Specific propositions are given to guide future research.
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In the citing paper
“The time-honored study of fear appeals has been influentially guided by Witte's (1992) venerable Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), which emphasizes the role of interactions of threat and efficacy in triggering danger control (the healthful process) and fear control (the more defensive, less adaptive process).”
From An Integrative Terror Management Theory Perspective on Media Effects: A Model and 12 Hypotheses for Research (2016) · cites this paper as Witte's (1992)
In the citing paper
“Additional items were developed based on key constructs from theoretical frameworks such as the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) (Witte, 1992) and the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) (Lindell & Perry, 2012).”
From Assessing earthquake preparedness in a culturally diverse international students population: a case of Ehime university in Shikoku, Japan (2025) · cites this paper as Witte, 1992
In the citing paper
“This dual nature suggests anxiety’s effects depend on intensity levels and individual psychological resources such as self-efficacy [28].”
From The power of loss: message framing, climate anxiety, and engagement in personal carbon trading (2025) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“existing literature suggests that anxiety may exhibit an inverted-U relationship with behavioral outcomes [28].”
From The power of loss: message framing, climate anxiety, and engagement in personal carbon trading (2025) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“which later influence intentions and ultimately behaviour.”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“The framework suggests that the characteristics of a warning affect the extent to which the warning will be noticed and later recalled”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“Warning reactions are thought to, in turn, affect attitudes/beliefs”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“and that attention to (and recall of) the warning influences warning reactions.”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“However, fear appeal theories, such as the extended parallel process model (EPPM),52 also suggest that two key constructs help explain how people respond to fear appeals—perceived threat and efficacy.”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“It was surprising that only five studies (with 8 effect sizes) in the meta-analysis assessed perceived likelihood of harm, a component of perceived threat, when much theorising situates this as a central construct in fear appeals and risk communication.52 88 89”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [52]
Citations
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Shih, T.-J., & Lin, C.-Y. (2017) · Environmental Communication · doi:10.1080/17524032.2016.1154886 · Cited by 23
Good News or Bad News? How Message Framing Influences Consumers’ Willingness to Buy Green Products
Tong, Z., Liu, D., Ma, F., & Xu, X. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.568586 · Cited by 22
Beaudoin, C. E., & Hong, T. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/30612 · Cited by 17
Wissinger, C. L., & Stiegler, Z. (2019) · Teaching and Learning in Medicine · doi:10.1080/10401334.2018.1528155 · Cited by 16
Perloff, R. M. (2016) · Studies in Media and Communication · doi:10.11114/smc.v4i1.1600 · Cited by 15
Republicans and Climate Change: An Audience Analysis of Predictors for Belief and Policy Preferences
Rolfe-Redding, J., Maibach, E. W., Feldman, L., & Leiserowitz, A. (2012) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2026002 · Cited by 15
Bornman, M., Schlemmer, L., van der Walt, T., van Dyk, C., & Bouwman, H. (2012) · Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.1016/j.trstmh.2012.04.007 · Cited by 10
Training to increase student perceptions of fairness in peer assessment
H. Stonewall, J., C. Dorneich, M., & Rongerude, J. (2024) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2024.2327858 · Cited by 6
Atalyan, T., & Bhandary, N. P. (2025) · Journal of Disaster Science and Management · doi:10.1007/s44367-025-00024-0 · Cited by 2
The power of loss: message framing, climate anxiety, and engagement in personal carbon trading
Li, T., Yang, Y., Liu, X., & Zeng, S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03713-w · Cited by 1
Atalyan, T., & Bhandary, N. P. (2026) · Natural Hazards Research · doi:10.1016/j.nhres.2026.07.004
Metadata
- Authors
- Witte, K.
- Affiliations
- Texas A&M University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Witte, Kim
- Venue
- Communication Monographs
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1992-12
- Volume
- 59
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 329-349
- ISSN
- 0363-7751 (ISSN-L)
- 1479-5787
- OpenAlex
- W2017785078
- Cited by
- 3,880
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2026: 249 · 2025: 250 · 2024: 268 · 2023: 258 · 2022: 296 · 2021: 363 · 2020: 254 · 2019: 183 · 2018: 193 · 2017: 176 · 2016: 156 · 2015: 168 · 2014: 160 · 2013: 146 · 2012: 91
- FWCI
- 11.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Communication Monographs (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Risk Perception and Management
- Social Sciences › Communication › Media Influence and Health
- Keywords
- fear appeals, Extended Parallel Process Model, fear control, boomerang effect, curvilinear effects, persuasion theory, health communication
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