Assessing earthquake preparedness in a culturally diverse international students population: a case of Ehime university in Shikoku, Japan

May combine two claims.

International students in Japan face distinct vulnerabilities and challenges including limited disaster knowledge, low levels of practical preparedness, emotional stress, and reliance on peer networks for information and support.

“These concerns are reinforced by recent studies that identify a range of challenges faced by international students in Japan, including limited disaster knowledge, low levels of practical preparedness, emotional stress, and reliance on peer networks for information and support (Bhandari, 2022;Gómez, 2013;Iizuka, 2022;Koike et al., 2024).”

• cites Bhandari, 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Gómez, 2013 sourcePartly supported

  Sections 4.2.4 and 5.2 report reliance on friends of the same nationality for information and emotional support; section 5.1 describes anxiety and other stresses after the earthquake. Sections 4.6.2 and 5.1 identify gaps in applying training and in preparation for the days after the tremors, but do not establish generally limited disaster knowledge or low practical preparedness: 71% of surveyed students had received earthquake training. The findings concern engineering students at Tohoku University, not international students throughout Japan. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Iizuka, 2022 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction reports limited disaster knowledge and reliance on family and same-nationality friends for information. Section 3.2 documents disaster-related anxiety, but finds it was generally greater among Japanese students. Sections 3.3 and 4.4 find that international students made more preparations than comparable Japanese students, contrary to the implication that they had especially low practical preparedness; reliance on peers for support, beyond information, is not established. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Prior experience may enhance, reduce, or have no effect on preparedness, depending on how individuals interpret and internalize that experience.

“Prior experience may enhance, reduce, or have no effect on preparedness, depending on how individuals interpret and internalize that experience (Becker et al., 2017).”

• cites Becker et al., 2017 sourceSupported

The quote only partly states this claim.

No significant relationship was found between education and awareness and perceived earthquake risk and emotional response (ρ = 0.111, p = 0.243).

“However, no significant relationship was found with perceived earthquake risk and emotional response (ρ = 0.111, p = 0.243).”

• Also stated in: § Relationships between education and other preparedness dimensions · plain

  “No significant correlation was observed between Education and Perceived Risk, as summarized in Table 4.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

May combine two claims.

In total, 113 valid responses were collected (response rate = 50.4%), with no missing data.

“In total, 113 valid responses were collected (response rate = 50.4%),with no missing data.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

May combine two claims.

Coping strategies for managing earthquake-related anxiety included talking with friends or family (43.4%), seeking information and reassurance from official sources (40.7%), and mentally rehearsing preparedness actions (33.6%).

“Coping strategies for managing earthquake-related anxiety included talking with friends or family (43.4%),seeking information and reassurance from official sources (40.7%), and mentally rehearsing preparedness actions (33.6%).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

May combine two claims.

The most frequently selected barriers to preparedness were a lack of information or training (33.6%), a lack of motivation (30.1%), and cost-related concerns (23.9%).

“The most frequently selected barriers were a lack of information or training (33.6%), a lack of motivation (30.1%), and cost-related concerns, such as the expense of emergency kits and supplies (23.9%).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most respondents were between 23 and 27 years of age (32.7%).

“Most respondents were between 23 and 27 years of age (32.7%), followed by 23.9% between 28 and 32 years, 17.7% between 33 and 37 years, and 15% between 18 and 22 years, while a smaller proportion (10.6%) was 38 years or older (Fig. 3).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

May combine two claims.

Only 30.1% of participants reported having a physical copy of emergency contact numbers in their emergency kit or wallet, while 69.9% did not.

“In contrast, only 30.1% of participants reported having a physical copy of emergency contact numbers (e.g., embassy, family, or local services) in their emergency kit or wallet, while 69.9% did not have anything like this.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

May combine two claims.

Other reported barriers included time constraints (22.1%) and low perceived necessity (15.0%).

“Other reported barriers included time constraints (22.1%) and low perceived necessity (15.0%).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

May combine two claims.

79.6% of participants reported familiarity with the Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) alarm alert in Japan, while 20.4% were not familiar with the system.

“Regarding the Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) alarm alert in Japan, 79.6% of participants reported familiarity with the warning, while 20.4% were not familiar with the system.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The majority of participants were from Asia (77.0%), followed by Africa (17.7%), Europe (3.5%), and the Americas (1.8%).

“In terms of continental distribution, the majority were from Asia (77.0%), followed by Africa (17.7%),Europe (3.5%), and the Americas (1.8%).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

May combine two claims.

62.8% of respondents (n = 71) reported having experienced an earthquake prior to arriving in Japan, while 37.2% (n = 42) had not.

“In terms of earthquake experience, 62.8% of the respondents (n = 71) reported to have experienced an earthquake prior to arriving in Japan while 37.2% (n = 42) have not”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

May combine two claims.

Some participants reported limited awareness of earthquake preparedness upon arriving in Japan and emphasized the need for clearer orientation.

“Some participants reported limited awareness of earthquake preparedness upon arriving in Japan and emphasized the need for clearer orientation.”

May combine two claims.

Participants expressed interest in receiving regular training and clearer announcements regarding earthquake drills.

“Participants expressed interest in receiving regular training and clearer announcements regarding earthquake drills.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The most common countries of origin were China (20.4%), Indonesia (15.0%), and Nepal (10.6%).

“The most common countries of origin were China (20.4%),Indonesia (15.0%), and Nepal (10.6%), characterized by high seismic hazard.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The open-ended question received 20 responses, which were manually reviewed and thematically categorized into four key themes.

“A total of 20 responses were received, manually reviewed, and thematically categorized.Four key themes emerged, illustrated with representative quotations.”

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Education was significantly associated with behavioral preparedness, confidence, and practical readiness.

“Education emerged as the strongest correlation of overall preparedness and was also significantly associated with behavioral preparedness, confidence, and practical readiness.”

May combine two claims.

The strongest correlation with overall preparedness was observed for Education, followed by Behavioral Preparedness, Practical Preparedness, and Confidence; Perceived Risk showed a more moderate correlation.

“The strongest correlation was observed for Education, followed by Behavioral Preparedness, Practical Preparedness, and Confidence.In contrast, Perceived Risk showed a more moderate correlation.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A small set of open-ended responses (n = 20) provided supplementary qualitative context, offering additional insights into perceived barriers and preparedness challenges.

“A small set of open-ended responses (n = 20) provided supplementary qualitative context, offering additional insights into perceived barriers and preparedness challenges.”

May combine two claims.

Fewer participants reported receiving education on communication plans (23.9%) or psychological coping strategies (8.0%).

“Fewer participants reported receiving education on communication plans (23.9%) or psychological coping strategies (8.0%) (Fig. 5).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The dataset was complete with no missing values, as all items were mandatory.

“The dataset was complete with no missing values, as all items were mandatory.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

As of June 2024, Japan hosted approximately 3.6 million foreign residents, among whom over 368,000 were international students.

“As of June 2024, Japan hosted approximately 3.6 million foreign residents, among whom over 368,000 were international students (Immigration Services Agency of Japan, 2024).”

• cites Immigration Services Agency of Japan, 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Most prior studies have focused primarily on specific aspects of preparedness, such as knowledge or behavior, in isolation.

“First, most prior studies have focused primarily on specific aspects of preparedness, such as knowledge or behavior, in isolation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Government projections warn of a worst-case nationwide disaster with 298,000 deaths (tsunami: 215,000 and building collapse: 73,000) during nighttime winter conditions with limited evacuation response.

“In this earthquake, the government projections warn of a worstcase nationwide disaster with 298,000 deaths (tsunami: 215,000 and building collapse: 73,000) during nighttime winter conditions with limited evacuation response (Cabinet Office, Government of Japan 2025).”

• cites Cabinet Office, Government of Japan 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The questionnaire was developed using validated instruments and informed by established theoretical models.

“The questionnaire was developed using validated instruments and informed by established theoretical models.”

• Also stated in: § Conceptual foundation · plain

  “The questionnaire was developed through a multi-source design strategy that combined validated instruments and theoretical frameworks to ensure conceptual rigor and coverage of diverse preparedness dimensions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

International students remain underrepresented in preparedness research.

“Second, although international students represent a growing and highly diverse demographic element in Japan, they remain underrepresented in preparedness research.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As of November 30, 2024, Ehime University hosted 224 international students.

“As of November 30, 2024, Ehime University hosted 224 international students (Ehime University, 2024).”

• cites Ehime University, 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Additional items were developed based on key constructs from the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) and the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM).

“Additional items were developed based on key constructs from theoretical frameworks such as the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) (Witte, 1992) and the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) (Lindell & Perry, 2012).”

• cites Witte, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lindell & Perry, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Matsuyama City is situated near the Median Tectonic Line and within a zone predicted to experience intensity 6+ during a potential Nankai Trough earthquake.

“Matsuyama City, situated near the Median Tectonic Line and within a zone predicted to experience intensity 6 + predicted intensity of shaking (Japan Meteorological Agency intensity level) during a potential Nankai Trough earthquake, provides a valuable non-metropolitan context for examining earthquake preparedness beyond Japan's major urban centers.”

• cites Japan Meteorological AgencyNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The risk of a major earthquake remains severe, especially from the anticipated Nankai Trough Earthquake, predicted to hit most of western Japan.

“Nevertheless, the risk of a major earthquake remains severe, especially from the anticipated Nankai Trough Earthquake, predicted to hit most of western Japan.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The probability of occurrence of the Nankai Trough Earthquake is estimated to be 70%-80% within the next 30 years.

“According to the 2025 government report, Japan's Earthquake Research Committee has estimated the probability of occurrence of the Nankai Trough Earthquake to be 70%-80% within the next 30 years (Japan Meteorological Agency, 2025).”

• cites Japan Meteorological Agency, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The single-university setting may constrain generalizability.

“In addition, the cross-sectional design limits causal inference, and the single-university setting may constrain generalizability.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Individuals who participated in disaster education through printed materials, public meetings, or broadcasts demonstrated significantly higher levels of overall earthquake readiness.

“For example, individuals who participated in disaster education through printed materials, public meetings, or broadcasts demonstrated significantly higher levels of overall earthquake readiness (Tanaka, 2005).”

• cites Tanaka, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Participants with greater earthquake-related knowledge tended to report more proactive behaviors, higher confidence, and greater engagement in practical preparedness measures.

“suggesting that participants with greater earthquake-related knowledge also tended to report more proactive behaviors, higher confidence, and greater engagement in practical preparedness measures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

For international students, prior experience in their home countries may not directly translate into readiness in Japan, where disaster expectations, infrastructure, and communication systems differ significantly.

“For international students, prior experience in their home countries may not directly translate into readiness in Japan, where disaster expectations, infrastructure, and communication systems differ significantly.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The study was grounded in established theoretical frameworks and built upon previously validated preparedness constructs.

“Methodologically, the study was grounded in established theoretical frameworks and built upon previously validated preparedness constructs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The cross-sectional design limits causal inference.

“In addition, the cross-sectional design limits causal inference, and the single-university setting may constrain generalizability.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Japan's Earthquake Early Warning system, multilingual signage, and institutionalized drills require localized understanding and support, which prior experience alone cannot provide.

“Japan's Earthquake Early Warning system, multilingual signage, and institutionalized drills require localized understanding and support, which prior experience alone cannot provide.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Prior earthquake experience influenced teenagers' risk perception but did not necessarily lead to greater preparedness.

“Similarly, although prior earthquake experience influenced teenagers' risk perception, it did not necessarily lead to greater preparedness.”

• cites Kazemi et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One item (Q27) was removed from the Behavioral Preparedness subscale after preliminary inspection due to a low item-total correlation.

“One item (Q27) was removed from the Behavioral Preparedness subscale after preliminary inspection due to a low item-total correlation.”

May combine two claims.

There is a readiness-action gap: despite relatively high scores in Perceived Risk, Education, and Confidence, participants reported lower levels of Practical Preparedness and Behavioral Preparedness.

“Despite relatively high scores in Perceived Risk (M = 2.76), Education (M = 2.74), and Confidence (M = 2.61), participants reported lower levels of Practical Preparedness (M = 2.33) and Behavioral Preparedness (M = 2.37).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported survey responses accurately reflect participants' actual earthquake preparedness knowledge, behaviors, and confidence.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 113 respondents are representative of the international student population at Ehime University such that findings can be interpreted for that population.

May combine two claims.

Education and Behavioral Preparedness subscales yielded Cronbach's alpha values below the conventional 0.70 threshold, but were retained based on accepted standards for exploratory research (Hair et al., 2010).

“(Education and Behavioral Preparedness) yielded Cronbach's alpha values below the conventional 0.70 threshold, but were retained based on accepted standards for exploratory research (Hair et al., 2010).”

• cites Hair et al., 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Attention to and comprehension of hazard information has been found to be significantly associated with preparedness intentions through these same mechanisms (Li et al., 2024).

“Attention to and comprehension of hazard information has also been found to be significantly associated with preparedness intentions through these same mechanisms (Li et al., 2024).”

• cites Li et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There is a gap between national-level awareness and localized, actionable preparedness, indicating that broad communication campaigns alone are insufficient for achieving effective disaster readiness.

“This points to a gap between national-level awareness and localized, actionable preparedness, indicating that broad communication campaigns alone are insufficient for achieving effective disaster readiness.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The qualitative component was limited in scope and depth, relying on a single optional item.

“The qualitative component was limited in scope and depth, relying on a single optional item.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recent research suggests that experiencing low to moderate magnitude earthquakes did not significantly enhance individuals' perception of earthquake occurrence (Zhang et al., 2025).

“Recent research suggests that experiencing low to moderate magnitude earthquakes did not significantly enhance individuals' perception of earthquake occurrence (Zhang et al., 2025).”

• cites Zhang et al., 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Few prior studies have analyzed these specific preparedness dimensions within a unified model.

“While this study statistically compared multiple preparedness components, few prior studies have analyzed these specific dimensions within a unified model.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The instrument was developed for exploratory purposes and has not yet undergone full psychometric validation.

“Although the preparedness dimensions were grounded in established frameworks, the instrument was developed for exploratory purposes and has not yet undergone full psychometric validation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cultural bias such as hierarchism, shaped by social surroundings, played a more influential role in shaping teenagers' risk-related attitudes.

“Instead, cultural bias such as hierarchism, shaped by social surroundings, played a more influential role in shaping their risk-related attitudes.(Kazemi et al., 2022).”

• cites Kazemi et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Existing literature consistently emphasizes the central role of disaster education.

“However, existing literature consistently emphasizes the central role of disaster education.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The structured quantitative design allowed for the identification of the most influential preparedness dimension and facilitated a broader examination of how this key factor relates to other components of readiness.

“Its structured quantitative design allowed for the identification of the most influential preparedness dimension and facilitated a broader examination of how this key factor relates to other components of readiness.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In accordance with institutional policies and established guidelines for low-risk social science research, formal approval from an ethics committee was not required or sought.

“In accordance with institutional policies and established guidelines for low-risk social science research, formal approval from an ethics committee was not required or sought.”