Gender representation in Japanese EFL textbooks–a corpus study
Abstract
This paper seeks to investigate whether the Japanese government’s attempt to promote a ‘gender-equal’ society in recent decades and the improved status of women are reflected in patterns of gender representation in Japanese English as a foreign language textbooks. The study made an analysis of four popular series of English language textbooks published in 2011 for local Japanese students with corpus linguistic tools (e.g. concordancing, keyword in context) to investigate the ratio of female-to-male appearances, the extent of use of gender-neutral and gender-marked constructions, the common adjectives associated with women and men, the common address titles for reference to women, and the order of appearance of women and men. The findings revealed some evidence of gender equity, including common use of gender-inclusive vocabulary (e.g. salesclerk, waitperson) and the neutral address title Ms for women. The ‘male-first’ phenomenon, however, is still prevalent in contemporary Japanese textbooks, suggesting the secondary status of women. Variations were found in different series of textbooks pertaining to the representation of women and men in the domains of quantitative balance and gender stereotyping. It is suggested that specific guidelines be compiled by the education authorities to help textbook authors write educational materials that help promote a gender-fair society in Japan.
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In the case of gender stereotypes or biases that appear in textbooks, students directly or indirectly practice them in everyday life.
“In the case of gender stereotypes or biases that appear in textbooks, students directly or indirectly practice them in everyday life (Bandura et al., 2003; Lee, 2018).”
From Gender representation in government-endorsed Arabic language textbooks: Insights from Indonesia (2023) · cites this paper as Lee, 2018
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Ghajarieh, A., Don, Z. M., Mozaheb, M. A., & Ghandil, G. (2023) · Pertanika journal of social science & humanities · doi:10.47836/pjssh.31.4.10 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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“This study adopts the comparative content analysis of textbooks, which is a long-established method with copious scholarships (Aslan et al., 2008; Clark, 2016; De Kort, 2017; Lee, 2018; Mori & Davies, 2015).”
Gender inclusiveness in student learning materials: Study of elementary school context in Indonesia
Salsabila, I., Hasanah, A. R., Mutakin, H. I., & Lestari, T. (2024) · HUMANIKA · doi:10.21831/hum.v24i1.67333 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“But also as a result of social construction; as a result, education also influences how gender relations are formed in society (Lee, 2018).”
BackgroundKlein, A. (2019) · Taikomoji kalbotyra · doi:10.15388/tk.2019.17233 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Song, Z., & Xiong, T. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-1935-0_5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Almaghlouth, S. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12439 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In addition to this, works of discourse analyses sometimes run the risk of being subjective (Lee, 2018); thus, by combining empirical data from the corpus analysis (Biber et al., 2012) and the triangulation of analysis using mixed analytical frameworks, linguistic patterns identified in the…”
BackgroundYim, D., & Lee, R. (2023) · Journal of Language Teaching · doi:10.54475/jlt.2023.027 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“It is evident that the Japanese government has made prominent effort in various aspects to promote a ‘gender-equal’ society and to improve the status of women in the last few decades (Lee, 2018).”
BackgroundA Corpus-Based Study of Gender Representation in Chinese EFL Textbooks
(2020) · International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature · doi:10.20431/2347-3134.0804003 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In previous investigations (e.g. Lee & Collins, 2016; Lee, 2016) the researchers have suggested the conventional male-first order of mention through observation of EFL textbooks corpora in Hong Kong (Lee & Collins, 2016) and in Japan (Lee, 2019).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGender Representations in Biology Textbooks for Secondary Schools in ChinaPreprint
Yang, D., & Zhou, M. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2054844/v1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Gender-Positioning within the Visual Network: How (Non-) Inclusive Can EFL Materials Get?
SIMSEK, M. R. (2022) · The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational and Social Sciences · doi:10.55549/epess.1196823 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cultural Conceptualization of Gender in Iranian High School English Textbooks
Alemi, M., & Asghari, M. (2025) · Cultural linguistics · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-7726-9_4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Deconstruction of the Discourse of Femininity: A Case of Thai Girls’ Schools
Satienchayakorn, N., & Jimarkon, P. (2021) · Sustainable Multilingualism · doi:10.2478/sm-2021-0013 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…& Ellece, 2013; Riissanen & Watson, 2014; Yaguchi et al., 2010) and power between genders in text books and learning materials (Daniel, 2013; Hamid et al., 2013; Lee, 2018) typically include analytical steps of frequency, collocation, concordance lines, semantic preference, and sematic prosody.”
BackgroundCulture and Chinese as a Second Language (CSL) Teaching Materials: An Introduction
Xiong, T., & Peng, Y. (2022) · International Journal of Chinese Language Teaching · doi:10.46451/ijclt.2022.02.01 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…Li, 2019; Setyono & Widodo, 2019), neoliberalism and neocapitalism (Bori, 2018; Gray, 2010a, 2010b; Xiong & Yuan, 2018), environmentalism （ Stibbe, 2004; Xiong, 2014), gender equality (Lee, 2018), and moral education (Feng, 2019; Guo & Feng, 2015), as well as cultural marginalization (Smith, 2021).”
BackgroundTeachers’ perceptions of gender stereotypes in EFL secondary textbooks
(2023) · Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction · doi:10.47750/pegegog.13.01.22 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF GENDER REPRESENTATIONS IN EFL TEXTBOOK OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Andini, T. N., Hidayat, D. N., Husna, N., & Alek, A. (2023) · Getsempena English Education Journal · doi:10.46244/geej.v10i1.2041 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“P-ISSN: 2355-004X E-ISSN: 2502-6801 |57 and women are treated unequally in Japan's social, economic, and political spheres is well known (Lee, 2018).”
BackgroundGender Representation on Visual Illustrations in Indonesia EFL Textbook
Liannita, D., Aridah, A., & Bonganciso, R. T. (2023) · Journal of English as A Foreign Language Teaching and Research · doi:10.31098/jefltr.v3i2.1776 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“It may b e one small step to reduce the gender bias implications toward the learners, yet the awareness of gender bias at school is necessary because people learn and replicate self-conduct through observation (Lee, 2016).”
BackgroundNur, S., & Farzana, A. (2024) · SN Social Sciences · doi:10.1007/s43545-024-00860-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Similarly Lee (2018) discovered that Japanese Grade 10 EFL textbooks depicted men in broader social roles than women, suggesting that men are more active physically and cognitively.”
Gender representation in English language textbooks in Bangladesh
Awal, A. (2024) · Studies in Linguistics Culture and FLT · doi:10.46687/kokb5598 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The representation of gender disparities in textbooks has been studied in different countries recently including Indonesia (Antiksari, 2011; Tyarakanita et al., 2021; Lestariyana et al., 2020; Suwarno et al., 2021; Tusita & Emaliana, 2020; Yonata & Yoniswan, 2021), Malaysia (Mukundan & Nimehchisal, 2008), Nigeria (Ogb…”
BackgroundLo, H. (2025) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2025.102853 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Positioning of female marriage immigrants in South Korea: a multimodal textbook analysis
Ahn, S.-Y., & West, G. B. (2022) · Applied Linguistics Review · doi:10.1515/applirev-2021-0082 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ronci, M. (2021) · Babylonia Journal of Language Education · doi:10.55393/babylonia.v3i.115 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The effects of different Chinese high school English textbooks on vocabulary acquisitionPreprint
Shen, Y. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/ruhbj · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lateralized imagery for sentence content: Testing grammar, gender and demonstratives.
Wallentin, M., Rocca, R., & Stroustrup, S. (2018) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
Danju, İ., & Besim, S. (2018) · Вісник Національної академії керівних кадрів культури і мистецтв · doi:10.32461/2226-3209.3.2018.173553
Taringa, B. (2019) · Alternation Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of the Arts and Humanities in Southern Africa · doi:10.29086/2519-5476/2019/sp25.3a14
Dang, Q. (2020) · Journal of Critical Thought and Praxis · doi:10.31274/jctp.11568
“Research has affirmed gender-biased prevalence in school textbooks (Blumberg, 2008; Lee, 2018; Osler, 1994; Parker et al., 2017; Woyshner & Schocker, 2015; Yang, 2016).”
BackgroundThe representation of women in teaching practices, discourse, and languages
Cesare, A.-M. D., & Casoni, M. (2021) · Babylonia Journal of Language Education · doi:10.55393/babylonia.v3i.201
Joseph, E. A. (2021) · Babylonia Journal of Language Education · doi:10.55393/babylonia.v3i.128
Sexism in Indonesia’s Tenth Grade EFL Companion Textbook
Firstyani, R. A., Asih, Y. U., & Suhatmady, B. (2022) · Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics · doi:10.21462/jeltl.v7i2.828 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Gender portrayal is, indeed, ideologically charged (Lee, 2018; Sunderland, 2019).”
BackgroundGender Inequity in K-12 Education
Lin, Z. (2022) · Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research/Advances in social science, education and humanities research · doi:10.2991/978-2-494069-31-2_284
Ghorbani, V., Yamrali, N., & Zarabi, H. (2023) · Journal of Studies in Applied Language · doi:10.52547/jsal.6.1.33
AYDIN-CERAN, S. (2023) · Research on Education and Psychology · doi:10.54535/rep.1345542
Representation Of Gender Pictured Out In “English In Mind Student’s Book 3”
Salsabila, T., Perpisa, L., & Sesmiyanti, S. (2023) · JUPE Jurnal Pendidikan Mandala · doi:10.58258/jupe.v8i3.5876
“based on the category proposed by (Lee, 2018).”
MethodInfluentialMekheimer, M. A. A. G. (2023) · The Coastal Review · doi:10.20429/cr.2023.130106
Huang, L. (2023) · Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media · doi:10.54254/2753-7048/17/20231264
Yu, Z. (2023) · Ogigia Revista Electrónica de Estudios Hispánicos · doi:10.24197/ogigia.34.2023.179-208
Jameaah, S. N., Setiawan, I., & Hermagustiana, I. (2024) · Journal of English as A Foreign Language Teaching and Research · doi:10.31098/jefltr.v4i1.1879 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Issues of Gender in the First-Grade IT Textbook in Oman
Bataineh, A., Douzandeh, E. A., & Shidi, A. A. (2024) · Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Studies · doi:10.32996/jhsss.2024.6.6.4
“In addition, Lee (2018) examined gender representation in some Japanese English as foreign language textbooks to identify if improvements of gender representation are present or not.”
BackgroundA VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF GENDER IN INDONESIAN EFL TEXTBOOKS
Chojimah, N., & Widodo, E. (2024) · LiNGUA Jurnal Ilmu Bahasa dan Sastra · doi:10.18860/ling.v19i1.24163
“The transitivity of the reading texts (Emilia et al., 2017), male and female titles (Ahmad & Shah, 2019; Lee, 2018), male and female-oriented topic presentation in dialogues and reading texts (Almghams, 2020), the frequency of names, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives attributed to women and women…”
BackgroundResultInvisible Women in IT: Examining Gender Representation in K-12 ICT Teaching Materials
Christensen, I. M., Marcher, M. H., Inie, N., & Brabrand, C. (2024) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/3632620.3671111
“…visually represented) [9, 53, 54], counting gendered words (pronouns, indicators of gender e.g. “girl”, and gender-marked words e.g. “police-man”) [51, 54, 55], generic constructions (whether a text uses generic “he”) [9, 53], and order of mention (whether it is more often male-first or…”
Gender Representation In The English Textbook: “My Next Words” For Fourth-Grade Students
Karsena, R. A., & Handayani, E. I. P. (2024) · Jurnal Onoma Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra · doi:10.30605/onoma.v10i4.4443
“It is crucial for textbooks to include non-discriminatory and gender-equal materials so that children may build their true gender identity and be confident in their capabilities to get the same chances as human beings regardless of gender (Lee, 2016).”
Yolanda, Y., & Purnani, S. T. (2024) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0241583
(De)Construction of Gendered Identities in ELT Materials: A Systemic Functional View
Rasti, A. (2025) · Forma y Función · doi:10.15446/fyf.v38n1.111971
Critical Language Pedagogy in Japanese University EFL Classes
Jackson, L. R., & Kennett, B. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-5421-6.ch005
Gender-Sensitive Language in Foreign Language Education
Dabbene, C. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-8146-5.ch012
Language model optimization and corpus construction techniques for Japanese speech recognition
Huang, Z., & Cao, Y. H. (2025) · Applied Mathematics and Nonlinear Sciences · doi:10.2478/amns-2025-0697
Gender (In)Equality In Locally Published EFL Coursebooks In Turkiye
GEZMİŞ, N. (2026) · Eğitim ve Yeni Yaklaşımlar Dergisi · doi:10.52974/jena.1940426
- Authors
- Lee, J. F. K.
- Affiliations
- Education University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Corresponding author
- Lee, Jackie F.K.
- ORCID
- Lee, Jackie F.K.
- Venue
- Gender and Education
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2016-07-28
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 379-395
- ISSN
- 0954-0253 (ISSN-L)
- 1360-0516
- OpenAlex
- W2495266958
- Cited by
- 118
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 4
- FWCI
- 9.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Gender and Education (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Meijo University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Studies in Language
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Discourse Analysis in Language Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Media, Gender, and Advertising
- Keywords
- gender representation, EFL textbooks, gender equality, gender stereotypes, gender-neutral vocabulary, women's status, gender equity in education
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