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Cited by 81EFL/ESL Teaching and LearningSecond Language Acquisition and LearningLinguistics and Language Analysis

Consciousness in second language acquisition: A review of field studies and laboratory experiments

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Ellis, Nick C.·1995·Language Awareness
DOI 10.1080/09658416.1995.9959876
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Abstract

This article addresses the roles of implicit learning, conscious hypothesis testing, and explicit instruction in Second Language Acquisition (SLA). In particular it asks (1) what is the role of consciousness in SLA, (2) what is the role of formal explicit instruction in SLA, (3) to what extent are the route, rate, and eventual levels of SLA affected by instruction, (4) does focusing learners’ attention on grammar facilitate SLA, (5) is there a role of negative evidence in SLA? In order to answer these questions it marshals relevant evidence from two complementary sources: (1) ecologically valid but methodologically weaker field studies of classroom SLA, (2) methodologically stronger laboratory experiments which investigate acquisition of artificial languages. These studies suggest that although much of the acquisition of language form comes as a result of implicit learning, there are demonstrable roles for explicit learning, for explicit instruction, particularly that which involves grammatical consciousness raising, and for the provision of negative evidence and recasts. For epistemological reasons it is hard to affect the route of acquisition, but these factors can speed the rate of language acquisition and raise ultimate levels of attainment.

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  • Ellis concludes that research shows a blend of explicit instruction and implicit learning to be superior to either one alone.

    “Ellis concludes that the research shows a blend of explicit instruction and implicit learning to be superior to either one alone.”

    From Focus on Form in Task-based Language Teaching (2000) · cites this paper as Ellis (1995)

    In “Explicit Instruction in Complex Rule-based systems,” Ellis says the experiments demonstrate that a blend of explicit instruction and implicit learning *can be* superior to either alone. The citing sentence presents that conditional conclusion as an unqualified finding; Ellis also says the advantages of explicit instruction depend on several factors. (LLM, conf=0.86)

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Research works printed but not linked: 12

  1. Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  2. CONSCIOUSNESS IN SLA: A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE p. 29
  3. Ellis, N.C. (Ed.) (1994a). Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. London: Academic Press.
  4. Ellis, N.C. (1994b). Implicit and explicit language learning -An overview. In N. Ellis (Ed.), Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages (pp. 1-32). London: Academic Press.
  5. Ellis, N.C., & Laporte, N. (in press). Contexts of acquisition: Effects of formal instruction and naturalistic exposure on SLA. To appear in A. de Groot & J. Kroll (Eds.), Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Perspectives. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  6. Lightbown, P. (1991). What have we here? Some observations on the influence of instruction on L2 learning. In R. Phillipson, E. Kellerman, M. Sharwood-Smith, & M. Swain (Eds.) Foreign/second language pedagogy research (pp. 197-212). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
  7. CONSCIOUSNESS IN SLA: A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE p. 31
  8. Lightbown, P., Spada, N., & Wallace, R. (1980). Some effects of instruction on child and adolescent ESL learners. In R. Scarcella & S. Krashen (Eds.), Research in second language acquisition (pp. 162-172).
  9. CONSCIOUSNESS IN SLA: A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE p. 32
  10. Rutherford, W. & Sharwood Smith, M. (Eds.) Grammar and Second Language Teaching. New York: Newbury House.
  11. Schmidt, R. (1994). Implicit learning and the cognitive unconscious: Of artificial grammars and SLA. In N. Ellis (Ed.), Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages (pp. 165-210). London: Academic Press.
  12. VanPatten, B. (in press). Input processing and SLA: On the relationship between meaning and form. In R. Barrutia, M. van Naerssen & P. Hashemipour (Eds.), Festschrfit for Tracey David Terrell. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Authors
Ellis, N. C.
Affiliations
Bangor University (GB)
Corresponding author
Ellis, Nick C.
ORCID
Ellis, Nick C.
Venue
Language Awareness
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
1995-01
Volume
4
Issue
3
Pages
123-146
ISSN
  • 0965-8416 (ISSN-L)
  • 1747-7565
DOI
10.1080/09658416.1995.9959876
OpenAlex
W2080498811
Cited by
81
References
78
Citations by year
2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 4 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
FWCI
33.83
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Language Awareness (publishedVersion)
  • Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Linguistics and Language Analysis
Keywords
second language acquisition, consciousness, explicit instruction, explicit learning, implicit learning, hypothesis testing, negative evidence, recasts, artificial language learning, ultimate attainment

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