Does Second Language Instruction Make a Difference? A Review of Research

“…investigations into the effectiveness of L2 instruction (e.g., Ellis & Laporte, 1997; Hulstijn & DeKeyser, 1997; Lightbown, Spada, & White, 1993; Long, 1983; Spada, 1997), particularly the Norris and Ortega (2000) comprehensive meta-analysis of the last 20 years’ empirical work, demonstrated…”

“…order of acquisition of instructed and naturalistic learners (e.g., Pica, 1983), (b) compare the success of instructed and naturalistic learners (Long, 1983) and (c) examine whether attempts to teach specific grammatical structures resulted in their acquisition (e.g., White, Spada, Lightbown, &…”

“…of second language ~L2! instruction ~e+g+, Doughty & Williams, 1998; Ellis & Laporte, 1997; Hulstijn & DeKeyser, 1997; Lightbown, Spada, & White, 1993; Long, 1983a; Spada, 1997!, particularly the comprehensive meta-analysis of Norris and Ortega ~2000!, demonstrate that focused L2 instruction…”

“In an updated review of the instructed IL development research, Long (1988b) likewise concluded that instruction is beneficial to learners, particularly in the areas of SLA processes, rate of SLA, and level of ultimate attainment.”

“However, on the basis of a review of 13 empirical studies Long (1982) points out that in systematizing these studies according to the absolute and relative effect of input and to the amount of natural versus formal input, a general tendency can be found which indicates a positive effect of instruction for L2 acquisiti…”

“Focus on forms ignores language learning processes altogether or else tacitly assumes a long discredited behaviorist model. Of the scores of detailed studies of naturalistic, classroom and mixed L2 learning reported over the past 30 years, none suggests anything but an accidental resemblance between the way learners a…”

“The task features explored in this paradigm include the following: participant structure (Long, 1983; Pica, 1996); direction of information exchange (Pica, 1994); diversity of task outcomes (Duff, 1986); opportunities for focus on form (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Swain, 1991); the effects of pretask planning (Ellis, 19…”

“Existing research, while not conclusive, strongly suggests that some focus on form may well be necessary for many learners to achieve accuracy as well as fluency in their acquisition of a second or foreign language (see, for example, Long, 1983; Rutherford & Sharwood Smith, 1988).”

“This evidence comes from a large number of laboratory and classroom-based studies as well as extensive reviews of studies on the effects of instruction over the past 20 years (R. Ellis, 1985, 1990, 1994, 2001, 2002a; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; Long, 1983, 1988, 1991).”

“The second prevalent view is implied by recent studies of classroom language learning, fairly represented in the valuable collections of Larsen-Freeman (1980), Seliger and Long (1983) and Faerch and Kasper (1983).”

“And consequently, accuracy cannot be used as a measure of linguistic development—as is done in many studies on the effect of particular teaching approaches on the learner's language (Long 1983; Pienemann, 1985).”

“Our results, along with Webb and Kagimoto (2009), have shown proficiency as a major predictor of performance on explicit tests of collocational knowledge.”

“…of explicit learning and L2 instruction (Doughty & Williams 1998; Ellis & Laporte 1997; Hulstijn & DeKeyser 1997; Lightbown, Spada, & White 1993; Long 1983; Norris & Ortega in press; Spada 1997), particularly the comprehensive meta-analysis of Norris & Ortega (2000) that summarized the findings…”

“…learning greatly influence students’ and teachers’ beliefs: If students were effectively corrected for every mistake they make (one Loewen, 2005; Long, 1983), it is time to put our collective effort into improving our methods of teaching grammar so that they can be perceived at least as…”

“Long's (1983a) review of the effects of formal instruction supports such a contention; classroom learners appear to learn more rapidly than naturalistic learners.”

“…debate regarding the most effective type(s) of FFI, there is some consensus that it is beneficial, and even necessary, for L2 learners (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2002; Gass & Magnan, 1993; Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Loewen, 2005; Long, 1983; Russell & Spada, 2006).”

“To this end, this study also sought to provide further evidence of whether one way of influencing SLA is by altering the means by which L2 learners process input.”

“Ever since Krashen (1982) claimed that second language acquisition (SLA) was an implicit process unaffected by a focus on the formal features of language in the classroom, the profession has debated in some fashion or another the veracity of that claim (e.g., DeKeyser, 1998; Doughty & Williams, 1998; Hammerly, 1987, 1…”

“2 For a discussion on conditions and contexts where instruction plays a facilitative role in SLA, see N. C. Ellis (2002a); Long (1983); Long and Robinson (1998); and VanPatten and Cadierno (1993).”

“Comprehensible input requires repetitions, confirmation, clarifications, modified stuctures used for interactions, and should focus on the 'here and now' (Long, 1983).”

“Perhaps the most influential publication was Long (1983a).”

“Learners who are instructed can, however, progress at a faster rate and can progress further along developmental sequences than naturalistic learners (Long, 1983).”

“The Interactive Perspective According to the interactive perspective, learning a new language is a function of social and meaningful interaction (Long, 1983); the degree of language learning success depends on the quality and type of interactions between learners and teacher (Long, 1983; Pica,…”

“…and instructors have agreed that pedagogical practices make a difference in language learning (Arteaga, Herschensohn, Q Gess, 2003; Ask, 2005; Ellis, 1990; Larsen-Freeman, 2003; Lee Q Valdman, 2000; Lightbown, 1998; Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Long, 1983; Spada Q Lightbown, 1993; VanPatten, 1996).”

“…in L2 learning can never be complete if it is not promoted through appropriate instruction; opportunities for implicit acquisition of the target language through meaningful input need to be balanced by some type of conscious learning of linguistic forms (Long, 1983, 1988; Ellis, 1994: 639–47).”

“The students’ L2 utterances in Lesson 3 were also classified in terms of two types of interaction: IRF (i.e. initiate-respond-feedback) exchange (Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975) and negotiation of meaning (Long, 1983).”

“Although some studies have found that formal L2 instruction can have a positive impact on L2 acquisition (Long, 1983, 1988; Norris & Ortega, 2000) there remain lingering doubts concerning the effectiveness of formal L2 instruction (Doughty, 2003).”

“This confirms the previous findings in Tono (1992). Lew and Tokarek (2010) found that the menu with highlighting is better, but their dictionary interface is an online version, where pressing the menu will take the users directly to the definition.”

“In 1983, the TESOL Quarterly published several articles from the colloquium at the 1982 convention (Allwright, 1983; Gaies, 1983; Long, 1983; Seliger, 1983).”

“The studies reviewed in Long (1983) and R.Ellis (1994) demonstrate that this can be done.”

“And that is so in spite of admitting that class attendance has an effect on learning (Long 1983).”

“This is the picture that emerges from several reviews and meta-analyses of FFI studies (DeKeyser, 2003; R. Ellis, 2007; Larsen-Freeman, 1995; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; Lightbown, 2001; Long, 1983; Norris & Ortega, 2000).”

“Without specifying the interpretive undertaking of the participants, classroom learning will remain a black box (Long 1983) whose contents are surmised only with reference to what goes in and what comes out without understanding what goes on there.”

“However, among many others, Long (1985) has further developed the”

“Early research was predominantly concerned with the influence of instruction on the rate and ultimate attainment of L2 learning (Long, 1983).”

“This relationship between knowledge and use has thus been the subject of much research already, and we do not intend to do review it here (see, for example, Long 1983; Ellis 1990; Nunan 1995).”

“The question of SL instruction is pertinently addressed by Long (1983), yet it remains open for further more divergent investigation.”