CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 893EFL/ESL Teaching and LearningSecond Language Acquisition and LearningNeurobiology of Language and Bilingualism

AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE

Open access
Ellis, Nick C.·2005·Studies in Second Language Acquisition
DOI 10.1017/s027226310505014x
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

This paper considers how implicit and explicit knowledge are dissociable but cooperative. It reviews various psychological and neurobiological processes by which explicit knowledge of form-meaning associations impacts upon implicit language learning. The interface is dynamic: It happens transiently during conscious processing, but the influence upon implicit cognition endures thereafter. The primary conscious involvement in SLA is the explicit learning involved in the initial registration of pattern recognizers for constructions that are then tuned and integrated into the system by implicit learning during subsequent input processing. Neural systems in the prefrontal cortex involved in working memory provide attentional selection, perceptual integration, and the unification of consciousness. Neural systems in the hippocampus then bind these disparate cortical representations into unitary episodic representations. These are the mechanisms by which Schmidt's (1990) noticing helps solve Quine's (1960) problem of referential indeterminacy. Explicit memories can also guide the conscious building of novel linguistic utterances through processes of analogy. Formulas, slot-and-frame patterns, drills, and declarative pedagogical grammar rules all contribute to the conscious creation of utterances whose subsequent usage promotes implicit learning and proceduralization. Flawed output can prompt focused feedback by way of recasts that present learners with psycholinguistic data ready for explicit analysis. Other processes of acquisition from output include differentiation, analysis, and preemption. These processes of conscious construction in working memory underpin relationships between individual differences in working memory capacities and language learning aptitude.Thanks to Rod Ellis for first suggesting that I try to write this and to the staff and students at Department of Applied Language Studies and Linguistics University of Auckland (2003), the TESOL Program Temple University Japan (2003), the Chester Language Development Reading Group, and the LOT winter school (2004) for helping me think it through. I am particularly grateful to Michel Paradis, Michael Swan, Karen Roehr, Anne Feryok, and Tamar Keren-Portnoy for pointing their giant biological cameras of consciousness at a prior draft, and for sharing their awareness with me in kindly and constructive fashion. I have learned a lot from it.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This theoretical article argues that explicit and implicit language knowledge are dissociable but dynamically interactive, with conscious attention and noticing seeding constructions that implicit learning later tunes. It synthesizes cognitive, neurobiological, and SLA evidence to propose multiple interface routes during input processing, output construction, feedback, and working memory.

Key findings

  • Explicit and implicit knowledge rely on different memory systems, yet explicit processing can affect implicit learning when attention is focused on form-meaning connections; the interface occurs transiently in conscious processing but can have enduring effects.
  • Meta-analytic evidence cited reports average effect sizes above 1.2 for 25 explicit form-focused treatments and above 1.0 for 69 explicit instructional treatments, with medium effects on free constructed production; output-practice studies averaged 1.39, and pushed-output interaction tasks showed d = 1.05 versus d = 0.61 for tasks without pushed output.
  • The paper proposes that explicit learning initially registers pattern recognizers for constructions, which are then consolidated and tuned implicitly; working memory, prefrontal and hippocampal systems, and phonological rehearsal support noticing, binding, and later analysis.
  • Low-salience, communicatively redundant L2 cues may be blocked or overshadowed by L1-tuned attention; explicit instruction, input processing, recasts, and output can raise their salience and promote implicit tallying.

Methods

  • Theoretical review and synthesis, not an empirical study; no participants or new data are reported.
  • Draws on prior cognitive psychology, neuroscience, SLA experiments, meta-analyses, and connectionist/usage-based accounts.
  • Main analysis is conceptual: it integrates Global Workspace Theory, neural correlates of consciousness, complementary memory systems, and SLA interface hypotheses to outline mechanisms.

Limitations

  • The paper does not present a formal limitations section. It states that more research is needed on explicit instruction using outcome measures focused on implicit knowledge and processing, and that there is too little work directly comparing working-memory models and components as predictors of SLA.
  • Evident from the text: as a theoretical synthesis, many proposed mechanisms are not tested in a single new study; conclusions depend on cited findings and analogies, and some claims about neural mechanisms and interface are speculative.
  • Also evident: the article relies heavily on selected examples and prior literature rather than systematic review procedures, so scope and generalizability are constrained.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s027226310505014x

Cites

281 of 281 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

7 of 110 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    When automatic capabilities fail, there follows a call recruiting additional collaborative conscious support.

    “when automatic capabilities fail, there follows a call recruiting additional collaborative conscious support ~Baars & Franklin, 2003!”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baars & Franklin, 2003! source
  • Premisecitation

    The effectiveness of L2 instruction is durable.

    “the effectiveness of L2 instruction is durable+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Norris and Ortega ~2000! source

      The retrieved passages are labeled as sections of “Self-Monitoring and Self-Reflection in an English Blended Learning Environment,” rather than the cited Norris and Ortega paper. Searches for durable effects, delayed posttests, and long-term retention returned no passage establishing whether L2 instruction’s effects persist. The claim cannot be assessed from this indexed copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    The weight of subsequent findings demonstrates that language acquisition can be speeded by explicit instruction.

    “the weight of the subsequent findings demonstrates that language acquisition can be speeded by explicit instruction+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Norris and Ortega ~2000! source

      The indexed copy's §4.2, “Scaffolding in a Blended learning environment,” discusses guided support for learners, not whether explicit instruction speeds language acquisition. Searches for accelerated acquisition and comparisons of explicit with implicit instruction returned passages from a text headed “Self-Monitoring and Self-Reflection in an English Blended Learning Environment,” rather than a decisive passage from the cited synthesis. The claim cannot be verified from this copy. (LLM, conf=0.73)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Focused L2 instruction results in substantial target-oriented gains.

    “focused L2 instruction results in substantial target-oriented gains”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Norris and Ortega ~2000! source

      The indexed passages are headed “Self-Monitoring and Self-Reflection in an English Blended Learning Environment,” rather than the cited meta-analysis. The Instructional Design section describes a blended course but does not report substantial target-oriented gains from focused L2 instruction. Searches for the claim’s wording and meta-analytic findings returned no decisive passage, so the attribution cannot be checked against this copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Explicit types of instruction are more effective than implicit types.

    “explicit types of instruction are more effective than implicit types”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Norris and Ortega ~2000! source

      The supplied passages, including §4.1 (Instructional design) and §4.2 (Scaffolding in a Blended Learning Environment), discuss blended learning rather than explicit versus implicit L2 instruction. Searches for the quoted comparison and a paraphrase found no passage addressing their relative effectiveness. The indexed text appears to be a different document, so it cannot verify the claim about Norris and Ortega’s paper. (LLM, conf=0.77)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 51
  • May combine two claims. 42

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Neural systems in the prefrontal cortex involved in working memory provide attentional selection, perceptual integration, and the unification of consciousness.

    “Neural systems in the prefrontal cortex involved in working memory provide attentional selection, perceptual integration, and the unification of consciousness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Explicit learning of language occurs in conscious efforts to negotiate meaning and construct communication.

    “Explicit learning of language occurs in our conscious efforts to negotiate meaning and construct communication+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The interface is dynamic: it happens transiently during conscious processing, but its influence upon implicit cognition endures thereafter.

    “The interface is dynamic: It happens transiently during conscious processing, but the influence upon implicit cognition endures thereafter.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    An individual's linguistic competence emerges from the memories of utterances in their history of language use and the abstraction of regularities within them.

    “an individual's linguistic competence emerges from the memories of the utterances in their history of language use and the abstraction of regularities within them+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Most knowledge is tacit; most learning is implicit; the vast majority of cognitive processing is unconscious.

    “Most knowledge is tacit knowledge; most learning is implicit; the vast majority of our cognitive processing is unconscious+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Constructions are symbolic: they specify the defining properties of morphological, syntactic, and lexical form and the semantic, pragmatic, and discourse functions associated with it.

    “Constructions are symbolic: They specify the defining properties of morphological, syntactic, and lexical form and the semantic, pragmatic, and discourse functions that are associated with it+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The basic units of language representation are constructions.

    “Cognitive linguistic and functional theories of language contend that the basic units of language representation are constructions+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Barlow & Kemmer, 2000
    • cites Bates & MacWhinney, 1981 source
    • cites Goldberg, 1995

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Usage-based theories hold that we learn constructions while using language, engaging in communication.

    “Usage-based theories of language acquisition hold that we learn constructions while using language, of engaging in communication”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Neural systems in the hippocampus bind disparate cortical representations into unitary episodic representations.

    “Neural systems in the hippocampus then bind these disparate cortical representations into unitary episodic representations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Implicit and explicit knowledge are dissociable but cooperative.

    “This paper considers how implicit and explicit knowledge are dissociable but cooperative.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    We learn language while using language.

    “We learn language while using language+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Constructions are form-function mappings, conventionalized in the speech community and entrenched as language knowledge in the learner's mind.

    “These are formfunction mappings, conventionalized in the speech community and entrenched as language knowledge in the learner's mind+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In unpredictable conditions, the capacity of consciousness to organize existing knowledge in new ways is indispensable.

    “In unpredictable conditions, the capacity of consciousness to organize existing knowledge in new ways is indispensable+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Other processes of acquisition from output include differentiation, analysis, and preemption.

    “Other processes of acquisition from output include differentiation, analysis, and preemption”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Implicit learning, operating throughout primary and secondary neocortical sensory and motor areas, collates the evidence of language, and the results of this tallying provide an optimal solution to the problem space of form-function mappings and their contextualized use.

    “Implicit learning, operating throughout primary and secondary neocortical sensory and motor areas, collates the evidence of language, and the results of this tallying provide an optimal solution to the problem space of form-function mappings and their contextualized use+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Related exemplars work together in implicit memory, their likenesses harmonizing into an attractor state, and by these means linguistic prototypes and categories emerge.

    “Related exemplars thus work together in implicit memory, their likenesses harmonizing into an attractor state, and it is by these means that linguistic prototypes and categories emerge+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Learning is a dynamic process; it takes place during processing.

    “Learning is a dynamic process; it takes place during processing, as Hebb ~1949!, Craik and Lockhart ~1972!, Pienemann ~1998!, and O'Grady ~2003! have all reminded us from their different domains+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hebb ~1949!

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Craik and Lockhart ~1972! source
    • cites Pienemann ~1998!

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Implicit habitual processes are highly adaptive in predictable situations.

    “These implicit, habitual processes are highly adaptive in predictable situations+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Schmidt's noticing hypothesis holds that the subjective experience of noticing is a necessary and sufficient condition for the conversion of input to intake in SLA.

    “These are the mechanisms of Schmidt's ~1984, 1990Schmidt's ~1984, , 1993Schmidt's ~1984, , 2001! noticing hypothesis, which holds that the subjective experience of noticing is a necessary and sufficient condition for the conversion of input to intake in SLA+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Schmidt, 1984

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Schmidt, 1990 source
    • cites Schmidt, 2001

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Conscious rehearsal in the phonological loop can provide data that evidences noncontiguous associations and discontinuous dependencies that are out of the scope of implicit learning but can nevertheless be scrutinized and conjoined.

    “Conscious rehearsal in the phonological loop can provide data that evidences noncontiguous associations, discontinuous dependencies that-although out of the scope of implicit learning-can nevertheless be scrutinized and conjoined+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Psychological research independently investigated the dissociations between implicit and explicit memory and between implicit and explicit learning.

    “psychological research was independently investigating the dissociations between implicit and explicit memory ~Schacter, 1987! and between implicit and explicit learning ~Reber, Kassin, Lewis, & Cantor, 1980!”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schacter, 1987 source
    • cites Reber, Kassin, Lewis, & Cantor, 1980! source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Explicit knowledge does not become implicit knowledge, nor can it be converted to it.

    “Paradis ~1994! was correct in stating that explicit knowledge does not become implicit knowledge, nor can it be converted to it+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Paradis ~1994!

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Clear evidence of the dissociability of implicit and explicit knowledge systems led analyses to focus upon the separability of implicit and explicit language learning and knowledge.

    “The clear evidence of the dissociability of implicit and explicit knowledge systems led these analyses to focus upon the separability of implicit and explicit language learning and of implicit and explicit language knowledge”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The last 10 years have seen significant advances in understanding of consciousness and its roles in learning and memory.

    “The last 10 years have seen significant advances in our understanding of consciousness and its roles in learning and memory+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Whole formulas originally explicitly learned as phonological wholes can later be dissected into their component structural parts.

    “Whole formulas, originally explicitly learned as phonological wholes, can later be dissected into their component structural parts+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Initial learning of a novel construction ordinarily involves focused attention on the meaning-form association and subsequent consolidation of an explicit memory.

    “Additional support for the claim that the initial learning of a novel construction ordinarily involves focused attention on the meaning-form association and subsequent consolidation of an explicit memory comes both from amnesic deficit and from mnemonic success+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Memorized expressions can provide negative evidence, constraining the hypothesis space from overly general grammars.

    “Memorized expressions can provide negative evidence, constraining the hypothesis space from overly general grammars+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The interface question has driven research in applied linguistics and SLA for the last 20 years.

    “The interface question has driven research in applied linguistics and SLA for the last 20 years”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bialystok, 1982

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Krashen, 1985

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites McLaughlin, 1987

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Explicit learning results in explicit memories.

    “Explicit learning results in explicit memories+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Explicit and implicit knowledge involve different types of representation and are substantiated in separate parts of the brain.

    “they involve different types of representation and are substantiated in separate parts of the brain”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites N+ Ellis, 1994c

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Schacter, 1987 source
    • cites Squire & Kandel, 1999

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Unconscious learning processes occur automatically during language usage and are necessary in developing the rationality of fluency.

    “In these ways, unconscious learning processes, which occur automatically during language usage, are necessary in developing the rationality of fluency”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites N+ Ellis, submitted

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Jurafsky, 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites MacWhinney, 1987b source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    Once associated, components stimulate each other via connections in the spreading activation of the cognitive unconscious.

    “Once associated, the components stimulate each other, via these connections, in the spreading activation of the cognitive unconscious+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The encoding of episodic memories is mediated by two principal components: a frontal-lobe component whose operations are strategic, organizational, and accessible to consciousness and voluntary control, and a modular medial temporal or hippocampal component whose operations are essentially automatic.

    “The encoding of episodic memories is mediated by two principal components: a frontal-lobe component whose operations are strategic, organizational, and accessible to consciousness and voluntary control, and a modular medial temporal or hippocampal component whose operations are essentially automatic ~Gabrieli, 1998; Moscovitch, 1992!+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gabrieli, 1998 source
    • cites Moscovitch, 1992 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Amnesia is not a failure to notice a novel conjunction; it is a failure to consolidate an explicit memory as a result of noticing.

    “Amnesia is not a failure to notice a novel conjunction; it is a failure to consolidate an explicit memory as a result of noticing+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The two complementary memory systems-the hippocampal system and the neocortical sensori-motor areas-allow the coexistence of instances and abstractions, thus solving the two basic knowledge functions of an organism that needs to acquire both specifics and generalizations, and they prevent the problem of catastrophic interference suffered by purely implicit connectionist mechanisms.

    “The two complementary memory systems-the hippocampal system and the neocortical sensori-motor areas-allow the coexistence of instances and abstractions, thus solving the two basic knowledge functions of an organism that needs to be able to acquire both specifics ~”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites McClelland, 1995

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites O'Reilly & Norman, 2002 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Formulas are used analogically in the production of novel constructions.

    “Formulas are used analogically in the production of novel constructions+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Krashen was correct to the extent that acquisition and learning are different things; explicit and implicit knowledge are distinct and dissociated.

    “Krashen ~1985! was correct to the extent that, as he termed it, acquisition and learning are different things; in psychological vernacular, explicit and implicit knowledge are distinct and dissociated”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Krashen ~1985!

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Implicit systems automatically process the input, allowing conscious selves to concentrate on meaning rather than form.

    “our implicit systems automatically process the input, allowing our conscious selves to concentrate on the meaning rather than the form+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In fluency, both language processing and language tallying are typically unconscious.

    “In fluency, both language processing and language tallying ~N+ Ellis, 2002a! are typically unconscious”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites N+ Ellis, 2002a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Neural systems in the prefrontal cortex, thalamus, and parietal cortex resonate in a neuronal synchrony required for perceptual integration and binding, buildup of coherent representations, attentional selection, awareness, and the unification of consciousness.

    “Neural systems in the prefrontal cortex involved in working memory, in the thalamus, and in the parietal cortex resonate in a neuronal synchrony required for perceptual integration and binding, buildup of coherent representations, attentional selection, awareness, and the unification of consciousness+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Baars outlined nine separate functions of consciousness, all of which involve working memory as the theater of consciousness.

    “Baars outlined nine separate such functions of consciousness, all of which involve working memory as the theater of consciousness+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baars, 1988

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The power of consciousness is exponential in that its major functions provide flexible adaptations to novel situations.

    “However, the power of consciousness is exponential in that its major functions provide flexible adaptations to novel situations ~Baars, 1988, chapter 10!+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baars, 1988

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Canadian working memory model emphasizes the trade-off between storage and processing, as evidenced by its operationalization, which measures working memory capacity as sentence span, where sentences have to be comprehended and evaluated for meaning while a verbal storage load (the last word of each sentence) steadily increases in magnitude.

    “emphasizes the trade-off between storage and processing, as is evidenced by its operationalization, which measures working memory capacity as sentence span, where sentences have to be comprehended and evaluated for meaning while a verbal storage load ~the last word of each sentence!steadily increases in magnitude+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Daneman & Carpenter, 1980 source
    • cites Just & Carpenter, 1992 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Working memory is the supervisory system that schedules cognitive processing, manipulating temporary memory representations that become relevant during everyday cognition.

    “It is the supervisory system that schedules cognitive processing, manipulating temporary memory representations that become relevant during the work of everyday cognition+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The database begins to provide sufficient exemplars to allow analysis: both the conscious explicit analysis of how the general construction might work and also implicit learning, hence the usual route of naturalistic acquisition, from formula through limited scope pattern to creative construction.

    “Also, the database begins to provide sufficient exemplars to allow analysis ~Tomasello, 1992!: both the conscious explicit analysis of how the general construction might work ~attentive working memory processes of hypothesis formation and analogy, which I will deal with in Section 4! and also implicit learning ~the neocortical processes of categorization, distributional analysis, and connectionist”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tomasello, 1992

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Each language processing usage results in the elements of the construction being primed and made more available in memory: pattern-recognition units incremented in strength; subcomponent elements bound more strongly; associated meaning primed; association between formal and semantic poles primed.

    “Each language processing usage results in the elements of the construction being primed and made more available in memory as a result: The pattern-recognition units for the aspects of language form that are involved are incremented in strength; any subcomponent elements that are represented in the formal elements of the construction are bound more strongly together as a result of their co-occur”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Under normal L1 circumstances, usage optimally tunes the language system to the input; under these circumstances of low salience of L2 form, all the extra input in the world might sum to naught, and we describe the learner as having 'fossilized' or-more correctly-'stabilized.'

    “Under normal L1 circumstances, usage optimally tunes the language system to the input; under these circumstances of low salience of L2 form, all the extra input in the world might sum to naught, and we describe the learner as having”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Although VanPatten and I agree that it is via processing that implicit mechanisms are tuned, the degree of influence of metalinguistic information on the nature of that processing is so profound that claims of interface and interaction seem fully justified.

    “Although VanPatten ~1996! and I ~N+ Ellis, 2002a~N+ Ellis, , 2002b! agree that it is via processing that implicit mechanisms are tuned, the degree of influence of metalinguistic information on the nature of that processing is so profound that claims of interface and interaction seem fully justified+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites VanPatten, 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites N+ Ellis, 2002a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites N+ Ellis, 2002b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Low-salience cues might never become integrated into the consolidated construction, and, broadly, never consolidated in a first instance means never tallied by implicit learning in usage thereafter.

    “In this way, low-salience cues might never become integrated into the consolidated construction, and, broadly, never consolidated in a first instance means never tallied by implicit learning in usage thereafter+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This formula is acquired early and thus serves as the concrete beginnings of what later will be a more general construction schema.

    “So it is this formula that is acquired early and thus serves as the concrete beginnings of what later will be a more general construction schema+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Metalinguistic information connects with implicit learning, and they meet and interact in processing. It is a dynamic interface.

    “Metalinguistic information connects with implicit learning, and they meet and interact in pro-cessing+ It is a dynamic interface+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Consciousness is functional like any other biological adaptation.

    “Like any other biological adaptation, consciousness is functional+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baars, 1988

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The present analysis supports the comprehensible output hypothesis proposal that comprehensible output contributes to L2 acquisition, in that as learners try to produce comprehensible output, various means of construction described in Section 4 potentially come into play in the development of accuracy and fluency.

    “The present analysis supports such proposals in that, as learners try to produce comprehensible output, the various means of construction described in Section 4 potentially come into play in the development of accuracy and fluency ~De Bot, 1996;Izumi, 2003!+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites De Bot, 1996 source
    • cites Izumi, 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Infants between 1 and 4 months can perceive the phoneme contrasts of every possible language, but by the end of their first year they can only distinguish the contrasts of their own language.

    “Infants between 1 and 4 months of age can perceive the phoneme contrasts of every possible language, but by the end of their first year, they can only distinguish the contrasts of their own ~Werker & Lalonde, 1988; Werker & Tees, 1984!+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Werker & Lalonde, 1988 source
    • cites Werker & Tees, 1984 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Working memory is the home of explicit deduction, hypothesis formation, analogical reasoning, prioritization, control, and decision-making.

    “Working memory is like 221b Baker Street: It is the home of explicit deduction, hypothesis formation, analogical reasoning, prioritization, control, and decision-making+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The first exemplar is often a high-frequency expression, a salient one of prototypical meaning and high functionality.

    “The first exemplar is often a high-frequency expression, a salient one of prototypical meaning and high functionality+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Izumi, Bigelow, Fujiwara, and Fearnow (1999) showed that opportunities for reconstruction in a pushed output task encouraged noticing of task-relevant aspects of linguistic form and enhanced rule learning in relation to those forms.

    “Izumi, Bigelow, Fujiwara, and Fearnow ~1999!showed that opportunities for reconstruction in a pushed output task encouraged the noticing of taskrelevant aspects of linguistic form and there was evidence of enhanced rulelearning in relation to those forms+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Izumi et al., 1999 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Working memory is where we develop, apply, and hone our metalinguistic insights into an L2.

    “It is where we develop, apply, and hone our metalinguistic insights into an L2+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Some type of explicit instruction or consciousness raising or form-focus can help the learner to notice the cue in the first place, consolidating an explicit construction linking the cue and its interpretation.

    “In these situations, some type of explicit instruction or consciousness raising ~Sharwood Smith, 1981! or form-focus can help the learner to notice the cue in the first place, consolidating an explicit construction linking the cue and its interpre-tation+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sharwood Smith, 1981 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The only hope for change lies in the resources of consciousness.

    “The only hope for change lies in the resources of consciousness+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Consciousness is needed to change behavior.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Keck, Iberri-Shea, Tracy, and Wa-Mbaleka (in press) reported a quantitative meta-analysis of studies of effects of interaction on acquisition.

    “Keck, Iberri-Shea, Tracy, and Wa-Mbaleka ~in press! reported a quantitative meta-analysis of studies of the effects of interaction on acquisition+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Keck et al., in press

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The use of exaggerated stimuli and adaptive training leads to rapid learning, whereas difficult stimuli with no adaptive modification produce little or no benefit.

    “The use of such exaggerated stimuli and adaptive training leads to rapid learning, whereas the use of difficult stimuli with no adaptive modification produced little or no benefit ~McCandliss, Fiez, Protopapas, Conway, & McClelland, 2002;McClelland, 2001!+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites McCandliss, Fiez, Protopapas, Conway, & McClelland, 2002 source
    • cites McClelland, 2001 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Implicit and explicit language learning are different.

    “The facts ~a! that implicit and explicit language learning are different,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Noticing the gap is not of itself a solution; it is just the beginning orientation, a recognition that the problem needs to be consciously addressed.

    “Of course, “noticing the gap” is not of itself a solution+ It is just the beginning orientation, a recognition that the problem needs to be consciously addressed+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The memes of our culture, transmitted through language, infect our conscious and unconscious selves.

    “The memes of our culture, transmitted through language, infect our conscious and unconscious selves ~Dawkins, 1976; Dennett, 1992!+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Dawkins, 1976

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dennett, 1992

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    There were statistically independent effects of knowledge of other gender languages, suggesting that not only must material be available for scrutiny in working memory but there must also be prior knowledge that focuses attentional biases to guide the analysis appropriately.

    “However, there were also statistically independent effects of knowledge of other gender languages, suggesting that not only must the material be available for scrutiny in working memory but there must also be prior knowledge that focuses attentional biases to guide the analysis appropriately+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams & Lovatt, 2003 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Our significant others, peers, and guides in this world become internalized in our motivations and attentions.

    “Our significant others, peers, and guides in this world become internalized in our motivations and attentions ~Tomasello, 1999; Vygotsky, 1980!+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Tomasello, 1999

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Vygotsky, 1980

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The input to our connectionist implicit learning systems comes via unitized explicit representations forged from prior attended processing.

    “The input to our connectionist implicit learning systems comes via unitized explicit representations forged from prior attended processing+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Controlled processing tunes our zombie agents.

    “Controlled processing tunes our zombie agents+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Salience is as much a psychological as a physical property; many affordances are cultural, goal-driven, and emergent.

    “Salience is as much a psychological as a physical property; many affordances are cultural, goal-driven, and emergent+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The echoes of our conscious experience live on in our unconscious.

    “The echoes of our conscious experience live on in our unconscious+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Individual differences in attentional processing as measured by sentence span predict individual differences in SLA, which lends support to theories of the role of conscious processing and explicit learning in SLA.

    “The fact that individual differences in this measure of attentional processing predict individual differences in SLA also lends support to theories of the role of conscious processing and explicit learning in SLA+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The more we must accommodate to new information, the more we need to be consciously involved with it.

    “In the language of Jean Piaget ~1975!, the more we must accommodate to new information, the more we need to be consciously involved with it+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Piaget, 1975

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Individual differences in sentence span relate to language learning aptitude: people with better sentence span are better language learners in both L1 and L2.

    “People with better sentence span are better language learners, both in L1 ~Daneman & Carpenter, 1980;Daneman & Case, 1981;Daneman & Green, 1986;Daneman & Merikle, 1996;Engle, Tuholski, Laughlin, &Conway, 1999! andin L2 ~Harrington &Sawyer, 1992!+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Daneman & Carpenter, 1980 source
    • cites Harrington & Sawyer, 1992 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Conscious and unconscious processes are dynamically involved together in every cognitive task and in every learning episode.

    “Conscious and unconscious processes are dynamically involved together in every cognitive task and in every learning episode+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The sequential motives of learning are novice + externally scaffolded attention -> internally motivated attention -> explicit learning -> explicit memory -> implicit learning -> implicit memory, automatization, and abstraction = expert.

    “In synopsis-so oversimplified that I fear it will come back to haunt me-the sequential motives of learning are novice ϩ externally scaffolded attention r internally motivated attention r explicit learning r explicit memory r implicit learning r implicit memory, automatization, and abstraction ϭ expert+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The British working memory model comprises a supervisory attentional system, two temporary slave memories (the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad), and a third cross-modal store, the episodic buffer, which holds episodic memories retrieved from long-term memory for scrutiny.

    “comprises a supervisory attentional system, two temporary slave memories ~the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad!, andmore recently-a third cross-modal store, the episodic buffer, which holds episodic memories retrieved from long-term memory for scrutiny ~Baddeley, 2000, 2002!+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Baddeley, 1986

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Baddeley, 2000 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The input to our slave systems in working memory comes via the echoes and abstractions of our long-term memories; we perceive the world through schematic lenses that represent our prior experience of the world.

    “The input to our slave systems in working memory comes via the echoes and abstractions of our long-term memories; we perceive the world through schematic lenses that represent our prior experience of the world+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Research on the British working memory model has centered on the role of the phonological loop in acquisition of vocabulary and formulaic utterances, the ways phonological long-term memory supports short-term rehearsal by Hebbian chunking processes, and how rehearsal in the phonological loop provides a window on language by allowing its attended scrutiny and analysis.

    “This research has centered on the role of the phonological loop in the acquisition of vocabulary and formulaic utterances, the ways in which phonological long-term memory supports short-term rehearsal by Hebbian chunking processes, and how rehearsal in the phonological loop provides a window on language by allow-ing its attended scrutiny and analysis+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Baddeley et al., 1998 source
    • cites Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites N. Ellis, 1996 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The world in which we live becomes represented in our minds.

    “The world in which we live becomes represented in our minds+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These working memory systems work together: attention may be involved in noticing, but a suitable declarative metalinguistic summary in the episodic buffer can focus attention ready for noticing, and temporary representation of language form in the phonological loop must be well specified.

    “Indeed, these systems work together: Attention might well be involved in noticing, but a suitable declarative metalinguistic summary in the episodic buffer can focus attention ready for noticing, and all this is to naught if the temporary representation of language form in the phonological loop is poorly or noisily spec-ified+”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Attention guides our SLA as it guides us through the world.

    “Attention guides our SLA as it guides us through the world+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    There has been too little work directly comparing the Canadian and British working memory models and their components as predictors of different aspects of SLA.

    “To date, there has been too little work directly comparing these trans-Atlantic models of working memory and their components as predictors of different aspects of SLA+”
    • Also stated in: § 5. WORKING MEMORY IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION · hedged
      “There is too little to go on as yet+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Old brain and new brain integrate into one functional whole.

    “Old brain and new brain integrate into one functional whole ~Luria, 1973!+”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Luria, 1973

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

84 of 84

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most knowledge is tacit knowledge; most learning is implicit; the vast majority of cognitive processing is unconscious.

    “Most knowledge is tacit knowledge; most learning is implicit; the vast majority of our cognitive processing is unconscious+”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    We learn language while using language.

    “We learn language while using language+”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is interaction between explicit and implicit knowledge.

    “Nevertheless, there is interaction+ However unalike they are, these two types of knowledge interact+”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Language is a social construction, and the ways that language typically relates to the world are culturally determined.

    “Language is a social construction, and the ways that language typically relates to the world are culturally deter-mined+”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    We are internally provoked to search for meanings, just as our language tutors are motivated to spotlight the relevant alternatives.

    “We are internally provoked to search for meanings, just as our language tutors are motivated to spotlight the relevant alternatives:”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    English learners of Chinese have difficulty with tones and Japanese learners of English have difficulty with the article system, both problems resulting from zero use in the L1.

    “English learners of Chinese have difficulty with tones and Japanese learners of English have difficulty with the article system, both problems resulting from zero use in the L1+”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most words (over 80% in English) have multiple meanings, but only one can become conscious at a time.

    “Most words ~over 80% in English! have multiple meanings, but only one can become conscious at a time+”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Japanese native adults perceive English /r/ and /l/ as one and the same phonemic category.

    “What might be examples of two separate phonemic categories ~0r0 and 0l0! for an L1 English language speaker are all of the same phonemic category for an L1 Japanese speaker+ Furthermore, in adulthood, the Japanese native cannot but perceive 0r0 and 0l0 as one and the same+”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Consciousness is needed to change behavior.

    “Consciousness is needed to change behavior+”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Under normal L1 circumstances, usage optimally tunes the language system to the input.

    “Under normal L1 circumstances, usage optimally tunes the language system to the input+”
10 of 10

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The acquisition of morphology poses a substantial challenge for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, particularly adults, because they learn explicitly, unlike young learners.

    “The pretest-analysis of this study reveals a significant aspect of previous researchers who state that the acquisition of morphology poses a substantial challenge for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, particularly adults, because they learn explicitly, unlike young learners (DeKeyser, 2000(DeKeyser, , 2003;;Ullman, 2001;Ellis, 2005Ellis, , 2009;;Spit et al. 2022).”

    From Transformative impacts of explicit morphological instruction on irregular inflectional acquisition in Saudi EFL learners (2024) · cites this paper as Ellis, 2005

    In “Explicit Focus on Implicit Tuning” (page unavailable), Ellis says morphology poses major problems for L2 learners, but gives the opposite explanation from the claim: learners continue to process these forms implicitly, and more conscious involvement is needed. The passage does not single out adult EFL learners or contrast their learning with that of young learners. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The acquisition of morphology poses a significant challenge for EFL learners, particularly adults, because they learn explicitly, unlike young learners.

    “Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research has shown that the acquisition of morphology poses a significant challenge for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, particularly adults, because they learn explicitly, unlike young learners (DeKeyser, 2000(DeKeyser, , 2003;;Ullman, 2001;Ellis, 2005Ellis, , 2009;;Spit et al. 2022).”

    From Transformative impacts of explicit morphological instruction on irregular inflectional acquisition in Saudi EFL learners (2024) · cites this paper as Ellis, 2005

    In “Explicit Focus on Implicit Tuning” (page unavailable), Ellis says morphology presents major problems for L2 learners. But he attributes the difficulty to continued implicit processing shaped by the first language, not to adults learning explicitly. The passage does not establish the claim’s EFL-specific or adult-versus-young-learner comparison. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Noticing can be facilitative, especially in speeding up learning of perceptually nonsalient features or in establishing a new representation in longterm memory, after which subsequent examples of the same feature in the input can be parsed implicitly, but it is neither a necessary component nor a necessary result of focus on form.

    “Noticing can be facilitative, especially in speeding up learning of perceptually nonsalient features or in establishing a new representation in longterm memory, after which subsequent examples of the same feature in the input can be parsed implicitly (N.Ellis, 2005), but it is neither a necessary component nor a necessary result of focus on form.”

    From In Defense of Tasks and TBLT: Nonissues and Real Issues (2016) · cites this paper as N. Ellis, 2005

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 283 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 15

  1. 10.1017/s0272263100001030__s0272263100001030 · DOI
  2. Poulisse, 1984, Interlanguage Studies Bulletin, 8, 70
  3. 10.1017/s0272263197002076__s0272263197002076 · DOI
  4. 10.1017/s0140525x99002149__s0140525x99002149 · DOI
  5. 10.1017/s0272263197001034__s0272263197001034 · DOI
  6. 10.1017/s0305000999003931__s0305000999003931 · DOI
  7. 10.1017/s0272263198004045__s0272263198004045 · DOI
  8. 10.1017/s0272263199003034__s0272263199003034 · DOI
  9. 10.1017/s0272263102002073__s0272263102002073 · DOI
  10. Ellis, 2002, Applied Linguistics, 24, 297
  11. Ellis, 2002, Applied Linguistics, 24, 297
  12. 10.1017/s0272263102002140__s0272263102002140 · DOI
  13. 10.1017/s0272263102002024__s0272263102002024 · DOI
  14. 10.1017/s0272263199001011__s0272263199001011 · DOI
  15. Skousen, 1995, Rivista di linguistica, 7, 213

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Ellis, N. C.
Affiliations
University of Michigan (US)
Corresponding author
Ellis, Nick C.
ORCID
Ellis, Nick C.
Venue
Studies in Second Language Acquisition
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2005-06
Volume
27
Issue
02
ISSN
  • 0272-2631 (ISSN-L)
  • 1470-1545
DOI
10.1017/s027226310505014x
OpenAlex
W1980240171
Cited by
893
References
283
Citations by year
2026: 29 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 93 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 85 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 59 · 2013: 45 · 2012: 61
FWCI
177.73
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Studies in Second Language Acquisition (publishedVersion)
  • Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
Keywords
explicit knowledge, tacit knowledge, noticing, implicit language learning, explicit learning, working memory, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, episodic memory, proceduralization, recasts, feedback, analogy, grammatical rules, individual differences, working memory capacity, language aptitude, consciousness

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review