The feedback triangle and the enhancement of dialogic feedback processes
Abstract
This article explores some of the main barriers to the enhancement of feedback processes and proposes a framework for using dialogic feedback to foster productive student learning in the discipline. The framework suggests a feedback triangle focused on the content of feedback (cognitive dimension), the interpersonal negotiation of feedback (social-affective dimension) and the organisation of feedback provision (structural dimension). The interplay between these three elements is central to prospects for the enhancement of feedback processes. Derived from the framework is a set of six key features of optimal feedback practice which we represent as building blocks of an architecture of dialogic feedback. The paper concludes with a research agenda which suggests issues to be further explored in the cognitive, social-affective and structural dimensions.
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These chatbots could facilitate dialogic feedback, which is associated with improved learner productivity and engagement.
“These chatbots could facilitate dialogic feedback, which is associated with improved learner productivity and engagement [45].”
From Promises and challenges of generative artificial intelligence for human learning (2024) · cites this paper as [45]
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“In conclusion, engagement in feedback dialogue processes seems to be promising to enhance student learning (Carless, Salter, Yang, & Lam, 2011), but also brings challenges (Yang & Carless, 2013; Zhu & Carless, 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialXu, Y., & He, L. (2019) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2019.00145 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“His heightened awareness of student needs in feedback processes is important for promoting dialogic feedback and student learning (Yang and Carless, 2013).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSupervisory feedback across disciplines: does it meet students’ expectations?
Bastola, M. N., & Hu, G. (2020) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2020.1780562 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Given such deep-seated disciplinary differences, students from different disciplines “may have varying needs and preferences for feedback” (Yang and Carless 2013, 291) and may understand the feedback received in different ways (Hyland 2013).”
BackgroundEspasa, A., Guasch, T., Saíz, R. M. M., Melo, M. M., & Carless, D. R. (2018) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2018.1430125 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“However, authors like Yang and Carless (2013) highlight technologies as facilitators of this persona-lisation.”
BackgroundSelf-citationCollege students’ perception of e-feedback: a grounded theory perspective
Chong, S. W. (2019) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2019.1572067 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“…student-centered and sustainable approach to giving written feedback as ‘ dialogic feedback ’ , which is subject to the influence of relational and emotional factors including trust (Nicol 2010; Boud and Molloy 2013; Yang and Carless 2013; Carless 2016; Carless and Chan 2017; Espasa et al. 2018).”
BackgroundDisciplinary perspectives on feedback processes: towards signature feedback practices
Carless, D. R., To, J., Kwan, C., & Kwok, J. (2020) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2020.1863355 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationBa, S., Zhan, Y., Huang, L., & Lu, G. (2025) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13605 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Steen-Utheim, A. T., & Hopfenbeck, T. N. (2018) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2018.1476669 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“The social-emotional dimension in feedback processes is also recognised in this view, including the role of trust because it affects students’ sense making of feedback and, consequently, can support students’ uptake and use of feedback (Yang and Carless 2013; Carless 2015).”
BackgroundThe art of questioning in online learning environments: the potentialities of feedback in writing
Guasch, T., Espasa, A., & Melo, M. M. (2018) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2018.1479373 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“The new paradigm is, on the contrary, more interactive and it is based on a dialogic process (Hounsell 2007; Nicol 2010; Carless et al. 2011; Yang and Carless 2013).”
BackgroundLa descentralización de la práctica evaluativa orientada al autoaprendizaje del estudiante
Muñoz, D. R., & Araya, D. H. (2020) · Educação e Pesquisa · doi:10.1590/s1678-4634202046219544 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Identifying the components of effective learner-centred feedback information
Ryan, T., Henderson, M., Ryan, K., & Kennedy, G. E. (2021) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2021.1913723 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Huang, S.-C. (2015) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2015.1042426 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Many other researchers contend too that, instead of one-way teacher monologues, feedback should be provided, responded to, adjusted and reflected to form a cycle of teacher–learner dialogues (Beaumont, O’Doherty, and Shannon 2011; Bloxham and Campbell 2010; Yang and Carless 2013).”
BackgroundLarge language models meet user interfaces: The case of provisioning feedback
Pozdniakov, S., Brazil, J., Abdi, S., Bakharia, A., Sadiq, S., Gašević, D., Denny, P., & Khosravi, H. (2024) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100289 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
McLean, H. V. (2018) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2018.1446508 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“…means that dialogue is thus experienced as a relational process where interactions aim to promote learner agency and self-regulation in trusting and respectful environments, requiring teachers to suspend their role of authority and power (Gravett and Petersen 2002; Yang and Carless 2013).”
BackgroundReconceptualizing the impact of feedback in second language writing: A multidimensional perspective
Liu, C., & Yu, S. (2022) · Assessing Writing · doi:10.1016/j.asw.2022.100630 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Perceptions of quality in staff-student written feedback in higher education: a case study
Dunworth, K., & Sánchez, H. S. (2016) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2016.1160219 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Designing learner-centred text-based feedback: a rapid review and qualitative synthesis
Ryan, T., Henderson, M., Ryan, K., & Kennedy, G. E. (2020) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2020.1828819 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“…up any perceived ambiguities with the creator of the feedback comments, and provide them with an opportunity to discuss (and potentially correct) any implicit understandings surrounding the purpose of feedback and their role within the process (Bloxham and Campbell 2010; Yang and Carless 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCrimmins, G., Nash, G., Oprescu, F., Liebergreen, M., Turley, J., Bond, R., & Dayton, J. (2014) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2014.986644 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“…foprescu@usc.edu.au © 2014 Taylor & Francis Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 2016 Vol. 41, No. 1, 141–153, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2014.986644 divides students and teachers has left students and teachers alike dissatisfied (Bailey and Garner 2010; Yang and Carless 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialDialogic peer coaching as teacher leadership for professional inquiry
Charteris, J., & Smardon, D. (2014) · International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education · doi:10.1108/ijmce-03-2013-0022 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Gan, Z. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00496 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“This cognitivist, corrective view of feedback as an end product from the teacher to the learner views feedback as a unidirectional transmission of knowledge, which frequently arises from the dominant structural constraint of written comments on end of course assignments (Yang and Carless, 2013).”
BackgroundMatthews, K., Tai, J., Enright, E., Carless, D. R., Rafferty, C., & Winstone, N. (2021) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2021.1903854 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationTowards automated content analysis of educational feedback: A multi-language study
Osakwe, I., Chen, G., Whitelock‐Wainwright, A., Gašević, D., Cavalcanti, A. P., & Mello, R. F. (2022) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100059 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
What are we missing? Spanish lecturers’ perceptions of their assessment practices
Serra, V. Q., Gómez, G. R., & Sáiz, M. S. I. (2014) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2014.930353 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Feedback and feed-forward have positive influences on learning (Boud & Molloy, 2012; Gibbs & Simpson, 2004; Sutton, 2012), especially when they are implemented as a dialogical process (Nicol, 2010; Yang & Carless, 2013).”
BackgroundNordic Educational Research Association (2024) · Nordic Studies in Education · doi:10.18261/issn.1891-5949 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Asregid, D., Mihiretie, D. M., & Kassa, S. A. (2023) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2023.2257121 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“But this skill of critical reflection is not instinctual for teachers; it requires intentional cultivation (Ahmet, 2019; Bognar & Krumes, 2017; Pow & Lai, 2021; Straková & Cimermanová, 2018; Yang & Carless, 2013).”
BackgroundSong, B. K. (2022) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2022.2042187 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“To harvest the positive effect of feedback, recognition of the active roles played by learners during the feedback processes is needed (Carless et al. 2011; Yang and Carless 2013; To and Carless 2016; Winstone et al. 2017b).”
BackgroundGravett, K., & Winstone, N. (2018) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2018.1498076 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Charteris, J. (2015) · Critical Studies in Education · doi:10.1080/17508487.2015.1057605 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“This relational process can be seen in Table 3 where teachers and peers collaborate in dialogic feedback interactions (Yang & Carless, 2013).”
BackgroundDesigning effective peer assessment processes in higher education: a systematic review
Fleckney, P., Thompson, J., & Vaz‐Serra, P. (2024) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2024.2407083 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Building in flexibility regarding how, when and what feedback is provided can facilitate student uptake (Yang & Carless, 2013).”
Besser, E. D., & Newby, T. (2019) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-019-00386-2 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Yang and Carless (2013) emphasize that the nature of course tasks should match feedback practices: Integrated multi-stage assignments generally facilitate timely comments and student uptake of feedback.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Westerveld framework for interprofessional feedback dialogues in health professions education
Tielemans, C., de Kleijn, R. A. M., van der Schaaf, M. F., van den Broek, S., & Westerveld, T. (2021) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2021.1967285 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Zhang, H., Liao, A. W. X., Goh, S. H. L., Yoong, S. Q., Lim, A. X. M., & Wang, W. (2021) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2021.105203 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Dynamic Assessment of Students’ Academic Writing
Shrestha, P. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-55845-1 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Feedback as a space for academic social practice in doctoral writing groups
Chakraborty, D., Soyoof, A., Moharami, M., Utami, A. D., Zeng, S., Cong-Lem, N., Hradsky, D., Maestre, J.-L., Foomani, E. M., & Pretorius, L. (2021) · Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1080/20590776.2021.1972764 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Undergraduate students’ perceptions of and responses to exemplar-based dialogic feedback
Tam, A. C. F. (2020) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2020.1772957 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“As dialogic feedback is process-oriented, it is suggested that the interplay of cognitive, social and affective scaffolding is important to first-year undergraduate students (Yang and Carless 2013; Xu and Carless 2017).”
BackgroundHelp seeking: agentic learners initiating feedback
Fletcher, A. K. (2017) · Educational Review · doi:10.1080/00131911.2017.1340871 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Cheng, L., Li, Y., Su, Y., & Gao, L. (2022) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2022.2092068 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“…continuous dialogue (Higgins, Hartley, and Skelton 2001) and making learners aware of the potential consequences of their comments and commentaries (Yorke 2003) are important ways to improve the effectiveness of feedback; therefore, the regulation scripts served as a checklist for effective…”
BackgroundUzun, Y., Suraworachet, W., Zhou, Q., Gauthier, A., & Cukurova, M. (2025) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-025-00515-3 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Feedback should facilitate a dialogue rather than merely transmitting information from teacher to student, to build two-way trust and improve motivation to engage with feedback (Yang & Carless, 2013).”
Feedback on feedback: Guiding student interpreter performance
Lee, J. (2018) · The International Journal of Translation and Interpreting Research · doi:10.12807/ti.110201.2018.a09 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Understanding how students process and use feedback to support their learning
Hepplestone, S., & Chikwa, G. (2014) · Practitioner Research in Higher Education · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Esterhazy, R., Nerland, M. B., & Damşa, C. I. (2019) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2019.1686699 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Moreover, few studies have investigated how teachers’ approaches to feedback are influenced by the specific disciplinary context, which influences the professional and educational practices and discourses with which teachers are familiar (Esterhazy 2018b; Trowler 2012; Yang and Carless 2013).”
BackgroundMiddleton, T., Shafi, A. A., Millican, R., & Templeton, S. (2020) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2020.1777397 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“…student attributes and the need for relationships and dialogue that build on the work of Ajjawi et al. (2017), Steen-Utheim andWittek (2017) and Yang and Carless (2013), we propose that the 5 (revised) indicators of academic buoyancy should be underpinned by a course ethos that values and…”
BackgroundWu, C., Zhang, Y.-W., & Li, A. W. (2023) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-023-04574-w · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Given the advantages of peer feedback above and the potential of utilizing peer feedback for English writing instructions, previous studies have incorporated peer feedback activities into the process-oriented approach for improving students’ writing performance (e.g., [20, 40, 42, 45]).”
BackgroundInterplay among technical, socio-emotional and personal factors in written feedback research
Chong, I. (2017) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2017.1317712 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“These socio-emotional factors play a crucial role in affecting students’ perception and uptake of written feedback, because feedback is essentially a social practice (Yang and Carless 2013).”
BackgroundSupportive Peer Feedback in Tertiary Education: Analysis of Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions
Ortíz, D. C., Nogué, L., Serra, T., & Colomer, J. (2019) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci9040280 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Opportunities for dialog and making evaluative judgments represent examples of literacy feedback that can strengthen the social-relationship aspect of peer interaction and reduce the power differentials and negative emotional reactions that can arise in a more directed teacher-student feedback process [2,54].”
BackgroundDesigning video feedback to support the socioemotional aspects of online learning
Ryan, T. (2021) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09918-7 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Yoo, H., & Jang, J. (2022) · Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education · doi:10.1080/03057925.2022.2036591 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Unfortunately, studies have found that in many cases, classroom teachers are not fully attentive to providing feedback to facilitate students’ learning (Van den Bergh, Ros, and Beijaard 2014) or in worst cases induce negative results by de-motivating students’ learning (Yang and Carless 2013).”
BackgroundCan Relational Feed-Forward Enhance Students’ Cognitive and Affective Responses to Assessment?
Hill, J., Berlin, K. L., Choate, J., Cravens-Brown, L. M., McKendrick-Calder, L. A., & Smith, S. V. (2021) · Teaching & Learning Inquiry The ISSOTL Journal · doi:10.20343/teachlearninqu.9.2.18 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Hui, S. K. F., Brown, G., & Chan, S. W. M. (2017) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-017-9469-6 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Student Perceptions of Feedback in Higher Education
Glazzard, J., & Stones, S. (2019) · International Journal of Learning Teaching and Educational Research · doi:10.26803/ijlter.18.11.3 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Despite being timeconsuming, dialogic feedback can facilitate negotiation, clarify confusions and create discussion (Yang & Carless, 2013).”
BackgroundAutomated Writing Evaluation System: Tapping its Potential for Learner Engagement
Zhang, Z., & Zhang, Y. (2018) · IEEE Engineering Management Review · doi:10.1109/emr.2018.2866150 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Delayed feedback without a dialogic nature [8] is unlikely to engage students in writing and revision.”
BackgroundWu, X. M., Dixon, H. R., & Zhang, L. J. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13095211 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“To increase the utilization of feedback, there has been a growing trend to frame feedback as a dialogic exchange between teachers and students rather than focusing on unidirectional teacher comments [9,20,21].”
BackgroundDenton, P., & McIlroy, D. (2017) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2017.1324017 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
- Authors
- Yang, M., & Carless, D.
- Affiliations
- Education University of Hong Kong (HK)
- University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Corresponding author
- Yang, Min
- Venue
- Teaching in Higher Education
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2013-04
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 285-297
- ISSN
- 1356-2517 (ISSN-L)
- 1470-1294
- OpenAlex
- W2111497108
- Cited by
- 414
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 37.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Teaching in Higher Education (publishedVersion)
- The HKU Scholars Hub (University of Hong Kong) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Social Sciences › Education › Higher Education Practises and Engagement
- Keywords
- dialogic feedback, feedback mechanisms, student learning, feedback architecture, barriers to feedback, university teaching
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