Reward-based plasticity of spatial priority maps: Exploiting inter-subject variability to probe the underlying neurobiology
Abstract
Recent evidence indicates that the attentional priority of objects and locations is altered by the controlled delivery of reward, reflecting reward-based attentional learning. Here, we take an approach hinging on intersubject variability to probe the neurobiological bases of the reward-driven plasticity of spatial priority maps. Specifically, we ask whether an individual's susceptibility to the reward-based treatment can be accounted for by specific predictors, notably personality traits that are linked to reward processing (along with more general personality traits), but also gender. Using a visual search protocol, we show that when different target locations are associated with unequal reward probability, different priorities are acquired by the more rewarded relative to the less rewarded locations. However, while males exhibit the expected pattern of results, with greater priority for locations associated with higher reward, females show an opposite trend. Critically, both the extent and the direction of reward-based adjustments are further predicted by personality traits indexing reward sensitivity, indicating that not only male and female brains are differentially sensitive to reward, but also that specific personality traits further contribute to shaping their learning-dependent attentional plasticity. These results contribute to a better understanding of the neurobiology underlying reward-dependent attentional learning and cross-subject variability in this domain.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Males demonstrate greater priority for reward-associated locations than females.
“males demonstrate greater priority for reward-associated locations than females (Della Libera, Calletti, Eštočinová, Chelazzi, & Santandrea, 2017).”
From Selection history: How reward modulates selectivity of visual attention. (2018) · cites this paper as Della Libera, Calletti, Eštočinová, Chelazzi, & Santandrea, 2017
Cites
Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction
Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. (2005) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks · doi:10.1109/tnn.2004.842673 · Cited by 25,263 · see citing works
Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
Cohen, P., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410606266 · Cited by 20,819 · see citing works
Kilzer, E., & Skinner, B. F. (1953) · The American Catholic Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/3707860 · Cited by 8,934 · see citing works
Neural Mechanisms of Selective Visual Attention
Desimone, R., & Duncan, J. (1995) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205 · Cited by 8,388 · see citing works
The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of addiction
Robinson, T. (1993) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/0165-0173(93)90013-p · Cited by 7,346 · see citing works
Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319 · Cited by 7,306 · see citing works
Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences.
Henry, N. W., Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. R. (1977) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2064799 · Cited by 7,231 · see citing works
Symonds, P. M. (1954) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0051901 · Cited by 4,902 · see citing works
Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1023/b:jadd.0000022607.19833.00 · Cited by 4,093 · see citing works
A revised version of the Psychoticism scale
Eysenck, S. B. G., Eysenck, H. J., & Barrett, P. (1985) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(85)90026-1 · Cited by 3,094 · see citing works
Skinner, B. F. (2022) · ABA España eBooks · doi:10.26741/978-84-09-40105-5 · Cited by 2,717 · see citing works
Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003) · Cited by 2,213 · see citing works
Neural correlates of decision variables in parietal cortex
Platt, M. L., & Glimcher, P. W. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/22268 · Cited by 1,721 · see citing works
Skinner, B. F. (1981) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7244649 · Cited by 1,660 · see citing works
Behavioral Theories and the Neurophysiology of Reward
Schultz, W. (2006) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070229 · Cited by 1,637 · see citing works
Top-down versus bottom-up attentional control: a failed theoretical dichotomy
Awh, E., Belopolsky, A. V., & Theeuwes, J. (2012) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.06.010 · Cited by 1,557 · see citing works
Stochastic Modeling of Elementary Psychological Processes
Snodgrass, J. G., Townsend, J. T., & Ashby, F. G. (1985) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422636 · Cited by 1,513 · see citing works
A taxonomy of external and internal attention.
Chun, M. M., Golomb, J. D., & Turk-Browne, N. B. (2011) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100427 · Cited by 1,472 · see citing works
Reward representations and reward-related learning in the human brain: Insights from neuroimaging
O’Doherty, J. P. (2004) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2004.10.016 · Cited by 1,426 · see citing works
Attentional bias in addictive behaviors: A review of its development, causes, and consequences
FIELD, M., & COX, W. (2008) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.03.030 · Cited by 1,376 · see citing works
Torrubia, R., Ávila, C., Moltó, J., & Caseras, X. (2001) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00183-5 · Cited by 1,348 · see citing works
Multiple reward signals in the brain
Schultz, W. (2000) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/35044563 · Cited by 1,303 · see citing works
VISUAL ATTENTION: Control, Representation, and Time Course
Egeth, H. E., & Yantis, S. (1997) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.269 · Cited by 1,267 · see citing works
Attentional modulation of visual processing
Reynolds, J. H., & Chelazzi, L. (2004) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131039 · Cited by 1,158 · see citing works
Self-citationValue-driven attentional capture
Anderson, B. A., Laurent, P. A., & Yantis, S. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1104047108 · Cited by 1,098 · see citing works
Matching Behavior and the Representation of Value in the Parietal Cortex
Sugrue, L. P., Corrado, G. S., & Newsome, W. T. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1094765 · Cited by 1,030 · see citing works
Impulsiveness and Venturesomeness: Their Position in a Dimensional System of Personality Description
Eysenck, S. B. G., & Eysenck, H. J. (1978) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1978.43.3f.1247 · Cited by 955 · see citing works
Reward, Motivation, and Reinforcement Learning
Dayan, P., & Balleine, B. W. (2002) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00963-7 · Cited by 855 · see citing works
Reward Changes Salience in Human Vision via the Anterior Cingulate
Hickey, C., Chelazzi, L., & Theeuwes, J. (2010) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1026-10.2010 · Cited by 606 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Interestingly, in previous studies, this score emerged as a good predictor of the impact of reward signals on attentional deployment (Hickey et al., 2010b) and motivation-based behavior (Beaver et al., 2006).”
Self-citationIndividual Differences in Reward Drive Predict Neural Responses to Images of Food
Beaver, J. D., Lawrence, A. D., van Ditzhuijzen, J., Davis, M. H., Woods, A., & Calder, A. J. (2006) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0350-06.2006 · Cited by 594 · see citing works
Menstrual cycle phase modulates reward-related neural function in women
Dreher, J.-C., Schmidt, P. J., Kohn, P., Furman, D., Rubinow, D., & Berman, K. F. (2007) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0605569104 · Cited by 567 · see citing works
Neuronal Activity Related to Reward Value and Motivation in Primate Frontal Cortex
Roesch, M. R., & Olson, C. R. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1093223 · Cited by 535 · see citing works
Leon, M. I., & Shadlen, M. N. (1999) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80854-5 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
A scale to measure locus of control of behaviour
Craig, A. R., Franklin, J., & Andrews, G. (1984) · British Journal of Medical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1984.tb01597.x · Cited by 439 · see citing works
The genetics of sex differences in brain and behavior
Ngun, T. C., Ghahramani, N., Sánchez, F. J., Bocklandt, S., & Vilain, E. J. N. (2010) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2010.10.001 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
The attention habit: how reward learning shapes attentional selection
Anderson, B. A. (2015) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12957 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Basal ganglia orient eyes to reward
Hikosaka, O., Nakamura, K., & Nakahara, H. (2006) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00458.2005 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Palmiter, R. D. (2008) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1417.003 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
Methods of Modeling Capacity in Simple Processing Systems
Townsend, J. T., & Ashby, F. G. (2014) · doi:10.4324/9781315802473-14 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Visual Selective Attention and the Effects of Monetary Rewards
Libera, C. D., & Chelazzi, L. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01689.x · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Self-citationRewards teach visual selective attention
Chelazzi, L., Perlato, A., Santandrea, E., & Della Libera, C. (2013) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2012.12.005 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Self-citationValue-Based Modulations in Human Visual Cortex
Serences, J. T. (2008) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.10.051 · Cited by 353 · see citing works
(1992) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-3618-5 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Learning to Attend and to Ignore Is a Matter of Gains and Losses
Della Libera, C., & Chelazzi, L. (2009) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02360.x · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Self-citationA value-driven mechanism of attentional selection
Anderson, B. A. (2013) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/13.3.7 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Learned Value Magnifies Salience-Based Attentional Capture
Anderson, B. A., Laurent, P. A., & Yantis, S. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0027926 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Gender differences in the mesocorticolimbic system during computer game-play
Hoeft, F., Watson, C., Kesler, S. R., Bettinger, K. E., & Reiss, A. L. (2008) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.11.010 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Reward-Dependent Gain and Bias of Visual Responses in Primate Superior Colliculus
Ikeda, T., & Hikosaka, O. (2003) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(03)00464-1 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Krebs, R. M., Boehler, C. N., Roberts, K. C., Song, A. W., & Woldorff, M. G. (2011) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr134 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
O’Doherty, J. P. (2007) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1401.036 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Neural Mechanisms of Incentive Salience in Naturalistic Human Vision
Hickey, C., & Peelen, M. V. (2015) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.12.049 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Altering Spatial Priority Maps via Reward-Based Learning
Chelazzi, L., E to inova, J., Calletti, R., Lo Gerfo, E., Sani, I., Della Libera, C., & Santandrea, E. (2014) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0277-14.2014 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Self-citationSex differences in the brain: from genes to behavior
(2008) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.45-6772 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Parallel basal ganglia circuits for voluntary and automatic behaviour to reach rewards
Kim, H. F., & Hikosaka, O. (2015) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awv134 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Attentional capture by signals of threat
Schmidt, L. J., Belopolsky, A. V., & Theeuwes, J. (2015) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.924484 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Reward Guides Vision when It's Your Thing: Trait Reward-Seeking in Reward-Mediated Visual Priming
Hickey, C., Chelazzi, L., & Theeuwes, J. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014087 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Self-citationEstradiol, Dopamine and Motivation
Yoest, K. E., Cummings, J., & Becker, J. B. (2015) · Central Nervous System Agents in Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.2174/1871524914666141226103135 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Beyer, C., Pilgrim, C., & Reisert, I. (1991) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.11-05-01325.1991 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Value-driven attentional priority signals in human basal ganglia and visual cortex
Anderson, B. A., Laurent, P. A., & Yantis, S. (2014) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2014.08.062 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Sex chromosome complement regulates habit formation
Quinn, J. J., Hitchcott, P. K., Umeda, E. A., Arnold, A. P., & Taylor, J. R. (2007) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1994 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Kristjansson, A., Sigurjonsdottir, O., & Driver, J. (2010) · Attention, Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/app.72.5.1229 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Becker, J. B., Berkley, K. J., Geary, N., Hampson, E., Herman, J. P., & Young, E. A. (2007) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195311587.001.0001 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Exploratory regression analysis: A tool for selecting models and determining predictor importance
Braun, M. T., & Oswald, F. L. (2011) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-010-0046-8 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
How motivation and reward learning modulate selective attention
Bourgeois, A., Chelazzi, L., & Vuilleumier, P. O. (2016) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2016.06.004 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Self-citationAttentional bias for nondrug reward is magnified in addiction.
Anderson, B. A., Faulkner, M. L., Rilee, J. J., Yantis, S., & Marvel, C. L. (2013) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/a0034575 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Knutson, B. D., & Wimmer, G. E. (2007) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1390.020 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Yamamoto, S., Kim, H. F., & Hikosaka, O. (2013) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0318-13.2013 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
The Role of Dopamine in Value-Based Attentional Orienting
Anderson, B. A., Kuwabara, H., Wong, D. F., Gean, E. G., Rahmim, A., Brašić, J. R., George, N., Frolov, B., Courtney, S. M., & Yantis, S. (2016) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.062 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Santesso, D. L., Dzyundzyak, A., & Segalowitz, S. J. (2011) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01229.x · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Making choices: the neurophysiology of visual-saccadic decision making
Glimcher, P. W. (2001) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/s0166-2236(00)01932-9 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Weil, R. S., Nicholas Furl, A., Ruff, C. C., Symmonds, M., Flandin, G., Dolan, R. J., Driver, J., & Rees, G. E. (2010) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00870.2009 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Multiple influences of reward on perception and attention
Pessoa, L. (2014) · Visual Cognition · doi:10.1080/13506285.2014.974729 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Gender differences in punishment and reward sensitivity in a sample of Taiwanese college students
Li, C., Huang, C.-Y., Lin, W.-Y., & Sun, C.-W. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.016 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Diekhof, E. K., & Ratnayake, M. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.10.016 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Libera, C. D., Perlato, A., & Chelazzi, L. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019460 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationCrowley, M. J., Wu, J., Hommer, R. E., South, M., Molfese, P. J., Fearon, P. R. M., & Mayes, L. C. (2013) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2012.694512 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Leone, L., Pierro, A., & Mannetti, L. (2002) · IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) · doi:10.1421/1245 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Bayer, J., Bandurski, P., & Sommer, T. (2013) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.12347 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Implicit and explicit selective attention to smoking cues in smokers indexed by brain potentials
Littel, M., & Franken, I. H. A. (2010) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881110379284 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
A cognitive neuroscience approach to individual differences in sensitivity to reward
Ávila, C., Parcet, M. A., & Barrós‐Loscertales, A. (2008) · Neurotoxicity Research · doi:10.1007/bf03033810 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
BAS-drive trait modulates dorsomedial striatum activity during reward response-outcome associations
Costumero, V., Barrós‐Loscertales, A., Fuentes‐Claramonte, P., Rosell‐Negre, P., Bustamante, J. C., & Ávila, C. (2015) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-015-9466-5 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Pollmann, S., Eštočinová, J., Sommer, S., Chelazzi, L., & Zinke, W. (2015) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.09.040 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationFeedback Processing in Adolescence: An Event-Related Potential Study of Age and Gender Differences
Grose‐Fifer, J., Migliaccio, R., & Zottoli, T. M. (2014) · Developmental Neuroscience · doi:10.1159/000358917 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Sex differences in the brain from genes to behavior
Becker, J. B. (2008) · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Biases of attention in chronic smokers: Men and women are not alike
Perlato, A., Santandrea, E., Libera, C. D., & Chelazzi, L. (2014) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-014-0287-6 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
7 of the 92 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Selection history: How reward modulates selectivity of visual attention.
Failing, M., & Theeuwes, J. (2018) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-017-1380-y · Cited by 345 · see citing works
The past, present, and future of selection history
Anderson, B. A., Kim, H., Kim, A. J., Liao, M., Mrkonja, L., Clement, A., & Grégoire, L. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.09.004 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Anderson, B. A., Kuwabara, H., Wong, D. F., Roberts, J., Rahmim, A., Brašić, J. R., & Courtney, S. M. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.05.062 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Reward association alters brain responses to emotional stimuli: ERP evidence
Chen, N., & Wei, P. (2018) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.11.001 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Awareness is necessary for attentional biases by location–reward association
Mine, C., Yokoyama, T., & Takeda, Y. (2021) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-021-02280-7 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Pavlovian learning in the selection history-dependent control of overt spatial attention.
Anderson, B. A., Liao, M., & Grégoire, L. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0001030 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Attentional Orienting by Non-informative Cue Is Shaped via Reinforcement Learning
Cho, S. A., & Cho, Y. S. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02884 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Manzone, J. X., Taravati, S., Neyedli, H. F., & Welsh, T. N. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021820940620 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Gacoin, M., & Hamed, S. B. (2023) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2023.1103999 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mao, H., Yuan, Y., & Si, J. (2018) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00950.2016 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Della Libera, C., Calletti, R., Eštočinová, J., Chelazzi, L., & Santandrea, E.
- Affiliations
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
- University of Verona (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Chelazzi, Leonardo
- Venue
- Cognitive Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2016-08
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 85-101
- ISSN
- 1758-8928 (ISSN-L)
- 1758-8936
- OpenAlex
- W2468105341
- Cited by
- 11
- References
- 92
- Citations by year
- 2023: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2
- FWCI
- 1.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cognitive Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Università degli Studi di Verona
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Visual Attention and Saliency Detection
- Keywords
- reward sensitivity, personality traits, gender differences, visual search, location-based attention, interindividual variability
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attention, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Neuronal Plasticity, Personality, Reward, Sex Factors, Space Perception, Visual Perception, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
