Physical, Physiological, and Behavioral Correlates of Musth in Captive African Elephants ( Loxodonta africana )
Abstract
Although musth in male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) is known to be associated with increased aggressiveness, urine dribbling (UD), temporal gland secretion (TGS), and elevated androgens, the temporal relationship between these changes has not been examined. Here, we describe the pattern of musth-related characteristics in 14 captive elephant bulls by combining long-term observations of physical and behavioral changes with physiological data on testicular and adrenal function. The length of musth periods was highly variable but according to our data set not related to age. Our data also confirm that musth is associated with elevated androgens and, in this respect, show that TGS and UD are downstream effects of this elevation, with TGS responding earlier and to lower androgen levels than UD. Because the majority of musth periods were associated with a decrease in glucocorticoid levels, our data also indicate that musth does not represent a physiological stress mediated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the occurrence of musth is associated with increased aggression and that this is presumably androgen mediated because aggressive males had higher androgen levels. Collectively, the information generated contributes to a better understanding of what characterizes and initiates musth in captive African elephants and provides a basis for further studies designed to examine in more detail the factors regulating the intensity and duration of musth.
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This heightened hormonal reactivity may be a physiological mechanism that supports older males' ability to gain or maintain high-status positions within the dynamic social hierarchy of male elephants.
“This heightened hormonal reactivity may be a physiological mechanism that supports their ability to gain or maintain high-status positions within the dynamic social hierarchy of male elephants [60,71].”
From Socializing a group of male Asian elephants in a semi-captive facility in Lao PDR (2025) · cites this paper as [60]
Musth is associated with increased androgen production.
“and is associated with increased androgen production [60,61].”
From Socializing a group of male Asian elephants in a semi-captive facility in Lao PDR (2025) · cites this paper as [60]
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- Authors
- Ganswindt, A., Heistermann, M., & Hodges, K.
- Affiliations
- German Primate Center (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Ganswindt, André
- Heistermann, Michael
- Hodges, Keith
- ORCID
- Ganswindt, André
- Venue
- Physiological and Biochemical Zoology
- Publisher
- University of Chicago Press
- Published
- 2005-07
- Volume
- 78
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 505-514
- ISSN
- 1522-2152 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-5293
- OpenAlex
- W2035312355
- Cited by
- 58
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 2.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Physiological and Biochemical Zoology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Nelson Mandela University Research Repository (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Keywords
- musth, Loxodonta africana, captive elephants, androgens, aggression, glucocorticoids, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, testicular function, adrenal function
- MeSH terms
- Adrenal Glands, Aggression, Analysis of Variance, Androgens, Animals, Animals, Zoo, Elephants, Feces, Glucocorticoids, Male, Reproduction, Sexual Behavior, Animal, Testis, Time Factors, Observation
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