Physiological plasticity in elephants: highly dynamic glucocorticoids in African and Asian elephants
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Slowly reproducing and long-lived terrestrial mammals are often more at risk from challenges that influence fitness and survival. It is, therefore, important to understand how animals cope with such challenges and how coping mechanisms translate over generations and affect phenotypic plasticity. Rapidly escalating anthropogenic challenges may further diminish an animal's ability to reinstate homeostasis. Research to advance insights on elephant stress physiology has predominantly focused on relative or comparative analyses of a major stress response marker, glucocorticoids (GCs), across different ecological, anthropogenic, and reproductive contexts. This paper presents an extensive review of published findings on Asian and African elephants from 1980 to 2023 (May) and reveals that stress responses, as measured by alterations in GCs in different sample matrices, often are highly dynamic and vary within and across individuals exposed to similar stimuli, and not always in a predictable fashion. Such dynamicity in physiological reactivity may be mediated by individual differences in personality traits or coping styles, ecological conditions, and technical factors that often are not considered in study designs. We describe probable causations under the 'Physiological Dynamicity Model', which considers context-experience-individuality effects. Highly variable adrenal responses may affect physiological plasticity with potential fitness and survival consequences. This review also addresses the significance of cautious interpretations of GCs data in the context of normal adaptive stress versus distress. We emphasize the need for long-term assessments of GCs that incorporate multiple markers of 'stress' and 'well-being' to decipher the probable fitness consequences of highly dynamic physiological adrenal responses in elephants. Ultimately, we propose that assessing GC responses to current and future challenges is one of the most valuable and informative conservation tools we have for guiding conservation strategies.
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Introductions of new individuals can be stressful, and glucocorticoid concentrations are commonly used as stress indicators for welfare management.
“Introductions of new individuals can be stressful; therefore, glucocorticoid concentrations are commonly used as stress indicators for welfare management [34].”
From Socializing a group of male Asian elephants in a semi-captive facility in Lao PDR (2025) · cites this paper as [34]
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Self-citation
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Socializing a group of male Asian elephants in a semi-captive facility in Lao PDR
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“Introductions of new individuals can be stressful; therefore, glucocorticoid concentrations are commonly used as stress indicators for welfare management [34].”
Self-citation
- Authors
- Pokharel, S. S., & Brown, J. L.
- Affiliations
- Smithsonian Institution (US)
- Venue
- Conservation Physiology
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2023-01-01
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- coad088-coad088
- ISSN
- 2051-1434 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC10673820
- OpenAlex
- W4388989883
- Cited by
- 23
- References
- 282
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 5
- FWCI
- 7.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Conservation Physiology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Shared Earth Foundation, Friends of the National Zoo, Anela Kolohe Foundation, Smithsonian Women’s Committee, Smithsonian Scholarly Studies Program
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Keywords
- elephants, glucocorticoids, stress physiology, physiological plasticity, Loxodonta africana, Asian elephant, individual differences, coping styles, adrenal response, well-being, conservation, long-lived mammals
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