Ancestry, Color, or Culture? How Whites Racially Classify Others in the U.S.

Schachter, Ariela; Flores, René D.; Maghbouleh, Neda

doi:10.1086/714215

Cited by 74Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchSocial and Intergroup PsychologyNames, Identity, and Discrimination Research

Ancestry, Color, or Culture? How Whites Racially Classify Others in the U.S.

Schachter, Ariela, Flores, René D., Maghbouleh, Neda·2021·American Journal of Sociology

DOI 10.1086/714215

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Abstract

Historically, the U.S. legal system formally institutionalized ancestry and appearance as the foundations of racial membership. Yet evidence suggests informal classification logics based on cultural cues like religion or language may have also long been present. Using a conjoint survey experiment, we disentangle the underlying classification logics of White observers and uncover three key norms: (1) ancestry strongly shapes classification, but there is little evidence of strict hypodescent; (2) skin color is a powerful signal that overrides ancestry when these signals conflict; and (3) sociocultural cues are especially important for “racial middle” categories such as Hispanic, Native American, MENA, and Asian. Our findings show that formal and informal racial classification logics can coexist in time and place. Further, the balance of these competing logics may depend on how state and nonstate actors establish and reinforce membership criteria. Our results hold methodological implications for studies that seek to operationalize race.

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Racial identification as white is an ideational and claims-making tool which, in the West, provides access to belonging among newcomers of European origins while putting the onus of proving belonging on non-whites.
“To bring the paper's case study to the broader debates in ethnic, migration and refugee studies, it is worth noting that recent research shows that racial identification as white is an ideational and claims-making tool which, in the West, provides access to belonging among newcomers of European origins (Nancheva and Ranta 2022;Schachter, Flores, and Maghbouleh 2021) while putting the onus of”
From Wages of whiteness contra refugee in the twenty-first century: Afghan and Ukrainian women’s self-identification as (non)refugees in Canada (2026) · cites this paper as Schachter, Flores, and Maghbouleh 2021

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Authors: Schachter, A., Flores, R. D., & Maghbouleh, N.
Affiliations: Washington University in St. Louis (US)
University of Chicago (US)
University of Toronto (CA)
ORCID: Schachter, Ariela
Flores, René D.
Maghbouleh, Neda
Venue: American Journal of Sociology
Publisher: University of Chicago Press
Published: 2021-03-01
Volume: 126
Issue: 5
Pages: 1220-1263
ISSN: 0002-9602 (ISSN-L)
1537-5390
DOI: 10.1086/714215
OpenAlex: W3163390736
Cited by: 74
References: 128
Citations by year: 2026: 10 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 2
FWCI: 15.24
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Journal of Sociology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
Keywords: racial classification, ancestry, skin color, cultural cues, language, hypodescent, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, Middle East and North Africa, Asians, conjoint survey experiment

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Ancestry, Color, or Culture? How Whites Racially Classify Others in the U.S.

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