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HABITABLE ZONES AROUND MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS: NEW ESTIMATES
Open accessAbstract
Identifying terrestrial planets in the habitable zones (HZs) of other stars is one of the primary goals of ongoing radial velocity (RV) and transit exoplanet surveys and proposed future space missions. Most current estimates of the boundaries of the HZ are based on one-dimensional (1D), cloud-free, climate model calculations by Kasting et al. However, this model used band models that were based on older HITRAN and HITEMP line-by-line databases. The inner edge of the HZ in the Kasting et al. model was determined by loss of water, and the outer edge was determined by the maximum greenhouse provided by a CO 2 atmosphere. A conservative estimate for the width of the HZ from this model in our solar system is 0.95–1.67 AU. Here an updated 1D radiative–convective, cloud-free climate model is used to obtain new estimates for HZ widths around F, G, K, and M stars. New H 2 O and CO 2 absorption coefficients, derived from the HITRAN 2008 and HITEMP 2010 line-by-line databases, are important improvements to the climate model. According to the new model, the water-loss (inner HZ) and maximum greenhouse (outer HZ) limits for our solar system are at 0.99 and 1.70 AU, respectively, suggesting that the present Earth lies near the inner edge. Additional calculations are performed for stars with effective temperatures between 2600 and 7200 K, and the results are presented in parametric form, making them easy to apply to actual stars. The new model indicates that, near the inner edge of the HZ, there is no clear distinction between runaway greenhouse and water-loss limits for stars with T eff ≲ 5000 K, which has implications for ongoing planet searches around K and M stars. To assess the potential habitability of extrasolar terrestrial planets, we propose using stellar flux incident on a planet rather than equilibrium temperature. This removes the dependence on planetary (Bond) albedo, which varies depending on the host star's spectral type. We suggest that conservative estimates of the HZ (water-loss and maximum greenhouse limits) should be used for current RV surveys and Kepler mission to obtain a lower limit on η ⊕ , so that future flagship missions like TPF-C and Darwin are not undersized. Our model does not include the radiative effects of clouds; thus, the actual HZ boundaries may extend further in both directions than the estimates just given.
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“The new Kopparapu et al. (2013) habitable zone model recalculates the classic Kasting et al. (1993) habitable zone with updated model inputs, and its habitable zone extends from 0.99 to 1.70 AU.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“However, this study did not include the effects of clouds or circulation of moisture, either of which could stabilize a planet at the inner edge of the habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“In this updated conservative estimation, Earth is very near the inner edge of the current habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“The location of the habitable zone depends on how bright the star is (Kopparapu et al., 2013); for brighter stars, the habitable zone is shifted outward because planets must be farther away from these stars to maintain temperatures necessary for liquid water, and for dimmer stars, the habitable zone is shifted inward (Fig. 18).”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al., 2013
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Cites
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MethodThe HITRAN 2008 molecular spectroscopic database
Rothman, L. S., Gordon, I. E., Barbe, A., Benner, D. C., Bernath, P. F., Birk, M., Boudon, V., Brown, L. R., Campargue, A., Champion, J. P., et al. (2009) · Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2009.02.013 · Cited by 3,339
Habitable Zones around Main Sequence Stars
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“Rayleigh scattering by water was also considered by Kasting (1988); Kasting et al. (1993), but these authors used the scattering coefficient for air because the coefficient for H2O was not available, or at least not known to them.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationHITEMP, the high-temperature molecular spectroscopic database
Rothman, L. S., Gordon, I. E., Barber, R. J., Dothe, H., Gamache, R. R., Goldman, A. S., Perevalov, V. I., Tashkun, S. A., & Tennyson, J. (2010) · Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2010.05.001 · Cited by 2,296 · cited 1×
“It is a program to produce high-resolution spectrum of any gas mixture, in any thermodynamical conditions, from line-by-line (LBL) databases such as HITRAN 2008 (Rothman et al. 2009) and HITEMP 20104 (Rothman et al. 2010).”
BackgroundGlobal Mineralogical and Aqueous Mars History Derived from OMEGA/Mars Express Data
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“As with the inner edge model, a more optimistic empirical limit on the OHZ can be estimated based on the observation that early Mars was warm enough for liquid water to flow on its surface (Pollack et al. 1987; Bibring et al. 2006).”
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GAIA: Composition, formation and evolution of the Galaxy
Perryman, M. A. C., de Boer, K. S., Gilmore, G. F., Høg, E., Lattanzi, M. G., Lindegren, L., Luri, X., Mignard, F., Pace, O., & de Zeeuw, P. T. (2001) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20010085 · Cited by 1,103 · cited 1×
“Estimates of luminosities will be derived using photometric and spectroscopic distances for now (in cases where parallax measurements are absent), but eventually GAIA (Perryman et al. 2001) will yield very precise parallaxes (and by extension precise luminosities) for all these target stars.”
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“In order to assess the potential habitability of recently discovered exoplanets, equilibrium temperature (Teq) has been used as a metric (Borucki et al. 2011; Batalha et al. 2012).”
BackgroundMethodPLANETARY CANDIDATES OBSERVED BY KEPLER . III. ANALYSIS OF THE FIRST 16 MONTHS OF DATA
Batalha, N. M., Rowe, J. F., Bryson, S. T., Barclay, T., Burke, C. J., Caldwell, D. A., Christiansen, J. L., Mullally, F., Thompson, S. E., Brown, T. M., et al. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/204/2/24 · Cited by 1,042
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–600 of 1,001
Surface flux patterns on planets in circumbinary systems and potential for photosynthesis
Forgan, D. H., Mead, A., Cockell, C. S., & Raven, J. A. (2014) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s147355041400041x · Cited by 34
“Recently, Kopparapu et al. (2013) returned toKasting et al’s original calculations, updating the atmospheric absorption models to refine the inner and outer boundaries of the HZ, extending them (in the conservative case) to 0.99 and 1.7 AU, respectively; although these boundaries apply only to…”
BackgroundInfluentialBehr, P. R., France, K. C., Brown, A., Duvvuri, G. M., Bean, J. L., Berta-Thompson, Z. K., Froning, C. S., Miguel, Y., Pineda, J. S., Wilson, D. J., et al. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acdb70 · Cited by 33
TARGET SELECTION FOR THE LBTI EXOZODI KEY SCIENCE PROGRAM
Weinberger, A. J., Bryden, G., Kennedy, G. M., Roberge, A., Defrère, D., Hinz, P. M., Millan-Gabet, R., Rieke, G., Bailey, V. P., Danchi, W. C., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/216/2/24 · Cited by 33
“A full discussion of all the considerations that go into determining a star’s habitable zone boundaries appears in Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialValidation of Small Kepler Transiting Planet Candidates in or near the Habitable Zone
Torres, G., Kane, S. R., Rowe, J. F., Batalha, N. M., Henze, C. E., Ciardi, D. R., Barclay, T., Borucki, W. J., Buchhave, L. A., Crepp, J. R., et al. (2017) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa984b · Cited by 36
“The boundaries of the HZ were calculated using the empirically derived relations presented by Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014).”
MethodKodama, T., Nitta, A., Genda, H., Takao, Y., O'ishi, R., Abe‐Ouchi, A., & Abe, Y. (2018) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1002/2017je005383 · Cited by 33
“There is another way to determine the inner edge of the HZ, which is defined by the complete loss of the Earth’s ocean over a timescale of 4.6 billion years (e.g., Kasting et al., 1993; Kopparapu et al., 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialClimate Modeling of a Potential ExoVenus
Kane, S. R., Ceja, A. Y., Way, M. J., & Quintana, E. V. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaec68 · Cited by 33
“The locations of the HZ regions are shown as light-green for the ‘conservative’ HZ and dark-green for the ‘optimistic’ extension to the HZ (Kopparapu et al. 2013; Kane et al. 2016).”
BackgroundPinchuk, P., Margot, J.-L., Greenberg, A. H., Ayalde, T., Bloxham, C., Boddu, A., Chinchilla-Garcia, L. G., Cliffe, M., Gallagher, S., Hart, K., et al. (2019) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab0105 · Cited by 33
Habitability and Water Loss Limits on Eccentric Planets Orbiting Main-sequence Stars
Palubski, I. Z., Shields, A. L., & Deitrick, R. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab66b2 · Cited by 35
“However, the OHZ is more sensitive to changes in obliquity, due to the presence of ice caps (or ice belts) on these planets.”
BackgroundTransits of Known Planets Orbiting a Naked-eye Star
Kane, S. R., Yalçınkaya, S., Osborn, H. P., Dalba, P. A., Nielsen, L., Vanderburg, A. M., Močnik, T., Hinkel, N. R., Ostberg, C. M., Esmer, E. M., et al. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aba835 · Cited by 33
The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Kossakowski, D., Kürster, M., Trifonov, T., Henning, T. K., Kemmer, J., Caballero, J. A., Burn, R., Sabotta, S., Crouse, J., Fauchez, T. J., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245322 · Cited by 33
Self-citationJansen, T., Scharf, C., Way, M. J., & C, A. D. D. G. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab113d · Cited by 37
The Need for Laboratory Work to Aid in The Understanding of Exoplanetary AtmospheresPreprint
Fortney, J. J., Robinson, T. D., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Amundsen, D. S., Brogi, M., Claire, M. W., Crisp, D., Hébrard, É., Imanaka, H., de Kok, R. J., et al. (2016) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1602.06305 · Cited by 33
Self-citationHABITABLE ZONE DEPENDENCE ON STELLAR PARAMETER UNCERTAINTIESPreprint
Kane, S. R. (2016) · Cited by 33
HABITABILITY OF EXOMOONS AT THE HILL OR TIDAL LOCKING RADIUSPreprint
Hinkel, N. R., & Kane, S. R. (2016) · Cited by 33
Krissansen‐Totton, J. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acdc26 · Cited by 41
“Moreover, since small orbital separations are implied for “Venus Zone” (Ostberg and Kane, 2019) and habitable zone (Kopparapu et al., 2013) instellations, terrestrial planets may also experience high non-thermal loss rates due to the stellar wind (Dong et al.”
Backgroundkspectrum: an open-source code for high-resolution molecular absorption spectra production
Eymet, V., Coustet, C., & Piaud, B. (2016) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/676/1/012005 · Cited by 32
“Recently, it was also used in order to better define the boundaries of the habitability zone around main-sequence stars [22].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationTechniques for High-contrast Imaging in Multi-star Systems. II. Multi-star Wavefront Control
Sirbu, D., Thomas, S. J., Belikov, R., & Bendek, E. A. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa8e02 · Cited by 32
“These stability regions for the Alpha Centauri system encompass the potential habitable zones for both stars computed following the method in Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
MethodEscape of rock-forming volatile elements and noble gases from planetary embryos
Benedikt, M., Scherf, M., Lammer, H., Marcq, E., Odert, P., Leitzinger, M., & Erkaev, N. V. (2020) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2020.113772 · Cited by 34
Life as the Only Reason for the Existence of N2–O2-Dominated Atmospheres
Sproß, L., Scherf, M., Shematovich, V. I., Bisikalo, D. V., & Lammer, H. (2021) · Astronomy Reports · doi:10.1134/s1063772921040077 · Cited by 33
Currie, M. H., Meadows, V., & Rasmussen, K. C. (2023) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/accf86 · Cited by 35
Self-citationAnatomy of rocky planets formed by rapid pebble accretion
Johansen, A., Ronnet, T., Schiller, M., Deng, Z., & Bizzarro, M. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142142 · Cited by 34
Mason, P. A., Zuluaga, J. I., Clark, J. M., & Cuartas-Restrepo, P. A. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/774/2/l26 · Cited by 32
“We follow the results of Kopparapu et al (2013) that, for single stars, provide limiting fluxes Seff (in units of present Earth solar flux) as a function of stellar effective temperature T∗ = Teff − 5780K: Seff = Seff⊙ + aT∗ + bT 2 ∗ + cT 3 ∗ + dT 4 ∗ (1) Here Seff⊙, a, b, c and d are constants…”
BackgroundResultEvidence for at least three planet candidates orbiting HD 20794
Feng, F., Tuomi, M., & Jones, H. R. A. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201730406 · Cited by 32
“Only the candidate with a period of about 330 d is located in the habitable zone (Kopparapu et al. 2013), although the confirmation of this candidate requires further observations and analyses.”
BackgroundEvaporation of planetary atmospheres due to XUV illumination by quasars
Forbes, J. C., & Loeb, A. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1433 · Cited by 32
“Just as each star has a circumstellar habitable zone, a set of planetary orbits that are likely to admit stable climates with liquid water at the surface (Kopparapu et al. 2013), it has been suggested that each galaxy has a particular range of radii where life is more likely to develop.”
BackgroundThe Test Case of HD 26965: Difficulties Disentangling Weak Doppler Signals from Stellar Activity
Díaz, M. R., Jenkins, J. S., Tuomi, M., Butler, R. P., Soto, M. G., Teske, J. K., Feng, F., Shectman, S. A., Arriagada, P., Crane, J. D., et al. (2018) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aaa896 · Cited by 32
“The green-filled area represents the liquid-water habitable zone estimated according to Kopparapu et al. (2013a, 2013b).”
MethodTERRESTRIAL PLANET FORMATION IN THE PRESENCE OF MIGRATING SUPER-EARTHSPreprint
Morbidelli, A., & Raymond, S. N. (2016) · Cited by 36
Dreizler, S., Luque, R., Ribas, I., Koseleva, V., Ruh, H. L., Nagel, E., Pozuelos, F. J., Zechmeister, M., Reiners, A., Caballero, J. A., et al. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348033 · Cited by 31
Spin evolution of Earth-sized exoplanets, including atmospheric tides and core–mantle friction
Cunha, D., Correia, A. C. M., & Laskar, J. (2014) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550414000226 · Cited by 30
“The HZ is defined as a range of distance to the star where the insolation received by an Earth-sized planet is adequate to allow its surface to maintain liquid water (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013b,a).”
BackgroundMilankovitch Cycles of Terrestrial Planets in Binary Star Systems
Forgan, D. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2098 · Cited by 26
“Over time, line radiative transfer models have been refined, leading to improved estimates of the inner and outer habitable zone edges (Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
BackgroundWhy do we find ourselves around a yellow star instead of a red star?
Haqq-Misra, J., Kopparapu, R. K., & Wolf, E. T. (2017) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550417000118 · Cited by 31
“2013, 2014; Wolf & Toon 2015) and outer edge (Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014; Haqq-Misra et al. 2016) of the habitable zone to find HZ G , HZ K and HZ M .”
InfluentialSelf-citationKnow the Planet, Know the Star: Precise Stellar Densities from Kepler Transit Light Curves
Sandford, E., & Kipping, D. (2017) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa94bf · Cited by 31
The lightness of water vapor helps to stabilize tropical climate
Seidel, S., & Yang, D. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aba1951 · Cited by 31
“Single-column models are widely used to simulate clouds and climate both on Earth and other planets (29).”
BackgroundHot Hydrogen Climates Near the Inner Edge of the Habitable Zone
Koll, D. D. B., & Cronin, T. W. (2019) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) · Cited by 31
Prospecting In Ultracool Dwarfs: Measuring The Metallicities Of Mid- And Late-M Dwarfs
Aller, K. M. (2016) · Texas ScholarWorks (Texas Digital Library) · doi:10.15781/t28b81 · Cited by 31
Beyond Runaway: Initiation of the Post-runaway Greenhouse State on Rocky Exoplanets
Boukrouche, R., Lichtenberg, T., & Pierrehumbert, R. T. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac1345 · Cited by 31
Schwieterman, E. W., Olson, S. L., Pidhorodetska, D., Reinhard, C. T., Ganti, A., Fauchez, T. J., Bastelberger, S., Crouse, J., Ridgwell, A. J., & Lyons, T. W. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac8cfb · Cited by 36
The Demographics of Terrestrial Planets in the Venus Zone
Ostberg, C. M., Kane, S. R., Li, Z., Schwieterman, E. W., Hill, M. L., Bott, K., Dalba, P. A., Fetherolf, T., Head, J. W., III, & Unterborn, C. T. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acbfaf · Cited by 31
STABILITY OF EARTH-MASS PLANETS IN THE KEPLER-68 SYSTEM
Kane, S. R. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/814/1/l9 · Cited by 31
“Using the stellar properties described above, we calculate the boundaries of the HZ as described by Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014).”
MethodExomoon habitability and tidal evolution in low-mass star systems
Zollinger, R., Armstrong, J. C., & Heller, R. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1861 · Cited by 32
“To define the HZ for a given star we followed the work by Kopparapu et al. (2013), who estimated a variety of limits for the inner and outer edges around stars with effective temperatures (Teff) in the range 2600 K ≤ Teff ≤ 7200 K.”
BackgroundInfluentialCARMENES input catalog of M dwarfs
Shan, Y., Revilla, D., Skrzypinski, S. L., Dreizler, S., Béjar, V. J. S., Caballero, J. A., Guillén, C. C., Cifuentes, C., Fuhrmeister, B., Reiners, A., et al. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346794 · Cited by 30
The SOPHIE search for northern extrasolar planets
Díaz, R. F., Rey, J., Demangeon, O. D. S., Hébrard, G., Boisse, I., Arnold, L., Astudillo-Defru, N., Beuzit, J.-L., Bonfils, X., Borgniet, S., et al. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201628331 · Cited by 30
“Following Kopparapu et al. (2013b) the inner edge of the HZ is taken as the distance where runaway greenhouse effect takes place.”
BackgroundInfluentialSPECULOOS Exoplanet Search and Its Prototype on TRAPPIST
Burdanov, A., Delrez, L., Gillon, M., & Jehin, E. (2018) · Open Repository and Bibliography (University of Liège) · Cited by 30
Short-duration high-amplitude flares detected on the M dwarf star KIC 5474065
Ramsay, G., Doyle, J. G., Hakala, P. J., García-Álvarez, D., Brooks, A., Barclay, T., & Still, M. D. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1182 · Cited by 29
“For a M4 V dwarf star the habitable zone is roughly 0.04–0.14 AU (eg Kopparapu et al 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialSnellen, I. A. G., Désert, J.-M., Waters, L. B. F. M., Robinson, T., Meadows, V., van Dishoeck, E. F., Brandl, B. R., Henning, T. K., Bouwman, J., Lahuis, F., et al. (2017) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa7fbc · Cited by 30
“This means that in principle it could have surface conditions that sustain liquid water - generally thought as a prerequisite for the emergence and evolution of biological activity (e.g. Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDayal, P., Cockell, C. S., Rice, K., & Mazumdar, A. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/810/1/l2 · Cited by 30
“…defining the requirements for habitable zones (where planets can produce biospheres) to exist around stars of varying ages, masses and metallicities6, the stellar habitable zones (SHZ; e.g. Huang 1959; Hart 1979; Kasting et al. 1993; Rushby et al. 2013; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Güedel et al. 2014).”
BackgroundCloutier, R., Astudillo-Defru, N., Doyon, R., Bonfils, X., Almenara, J. M., Benneke, B., Bouchy, F., Delfosse, X., Ehrenreich, D., Forveille, T., et al. (2017) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1707.04292 · Cited by 30
“5 dwarf with a period of ∼32.9 days placing it directly within the star’s habitable zone (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialTRANSIT AND RADIAL VELOCITY SURVEY EFFICIENCY COMPARISON FOR A HABITABLE ZONE EARTH
Burke, C. J., & McCullough, P. R. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/792/1/79 · Cited by 29
“The above results depend on the definition of the inner-HZ (Selsis et al. 2007; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Zsom et al. 2013).”
BackgroundPaths to robust exoplanet science yield margin for the Habitable Worlds Observatory
Stark, C. C., Mennesson, B. P., Bryson, S., Ford, E. B., Robinson, T. D., Belikov, R., Bolcar, M. R., Feinberg, L. D., Guyon, O., Latouf, N., et al. (2024) · Journal of Astronomical Telescopes Instruments and Systems · doi:10.1117/1.jatis.10.3.034006 · Cited by 29
“19 and 20.”
Self-citationObservational signatures of self-destructive civilizations
Stevens, A., Forgan, D. H., & James, J. O. (2015) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550415000397 · Cited by 29
MODELING INDICATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY IN PLANETARY TRANSIT LIGHT CURVES—DARK-SIDE ILLUMINATION
Korpela, E., Sallmen, S. M., & Greene, D. L. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/809/2/139 · Cited by 29
“For a detailed discussion, see Petigura et al. (2013), who compare the conservative (rather than optimistic) choices made by Kopparapu et al. (2013) with those of other authors (Kasting et al. 1993; Zsom et al. 2013; Pierrehumbert & Gaidos 2011).”
MethodResultLenardic, A., Crowley, J. W., Jellinek, M. A., & Weller, M. B. (2016) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1378 · Cited by 28
“Recent studies that make this assumption have pushed the boundary between Earth and Venus close to both the size and solar proximity of Earth (Valencia et al. , 2007; Kopparapu et al. , 2013).”
InfluentialObliquity Variations of Habitable Zone Planets Kepler-62f and Kepler-186f
Shan, Y., & Li, G. (2018) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aabfd1 · Cited by 29
“The HZ is conventionally defined as the region where liquid water may exist on the surface of the planets with atmospheres similar to that of the Earth (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundRobinson, T. D., & Crisp, D. (2018) · Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2018.03.002 · Cited by 29
“We further explore the accuracy of our climate calculations via a comparison to a widely-adopted, one-dimensional radiative convective model—the Clima tool developed by Kasting and collaborators [59, 60, 61, 62].”
MethodSelf-citationRevised Exoplanet Radii and Habitability Using Gaia Data Release 2
Johns, D., Marti, C., Huff, M., McCann, J., Wittenmyer, R. A., Horner, J., & Wright, D. J. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aae5fb · Cited by 29
“In order to evaluate whether a given planet moves on an orbit within the habitable zone around its host star, we use the habitable zone boundaries for a 1M⊕ planet provided by Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe Effect of Photoionization on the Loss of Water of the Planet
Guo, J. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaffd4 · Cited by 30
Kadoya, S., & Tajika, E. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab0aef · Cited by 29
Evryscope and K2 Constraints on TRAPPIST-1 Superflare Occurrence and Planetary Habitability
Glazier, A., Howard, W. S., Corbett, H., Law, N. M., Ratzloff, J. K., Fors, O., & del Ser, D. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aba4a6 · Cited by 29
“…where temperatures are not hot enough to cause water loss nor too cold for greenhouse warming to maintain temperatures conducive for liquid water Corresponding author: Amy Glazier aglazier@unc.edu (Kopparapu et al. 2013), the TRAPPIST-1 system is a compelling target for exoplanet characterization.”
BackgroundThe K Dwarf Advantage for Biosignatures on Directly Imaged Exoplanets
Arney, G. (2019) · NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) · Cited by 29
Kruijssen, J. M. D., Longmore, S. N., & Chevance, M. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abccc3 · Cited by 29
HAZMAT. VII. The Evolution of Ultraviolet Emission with Age and Rotation for Early M Dwarf Stars
Loyd, R. O. P., Shkolnik, E. L., Schneider, A. C., Richey-Yowell, T., Jackman, J. A. G., Peacock, S., Barman, T., Pagano, I., & Meadows, V. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abd0f0 · Cited by 29
Self-citation3D Convection-resolving Model of Temperate, Tidally Locked Exoplanets
Lefèvre, M., Turbet, M., & Pierrehumbert, R. T. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abf2c1 · Cited by 29
“A similar reduction of the Bond albedo is also observed in the 1D cloud-free simulations of Kopparapu et al. (2013) (see Figure 6(a), calculated for a surface albedo of 0.3).”
BackgroundInfluentialMiyazaki, Y., & Korenaga, J. (2022) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2021.0126 · Cited by 34
“Thepresence of surface water has often been discussed in terms of the habitable zone (Kasting et al. , 1993; Kopparapu et al. , 2013; Kodama et al. , 2019), which is the region where liquid water is stable at the temperature and pressure conditions of a planetary surface.”
Detectability of Chlorofluorocarbons in the Atmospheres of Habitable M-dwarf Planets
Haqq-Misra, J. D., Kopparapu, R., Fauchez, T. J., Frank, A., Wright, J. T., & Lingam, M. (2022) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ac5404 · Cited by 30
Self-citationRealistic collisional water transport during terrestrial planet formation
Burger, C., Bazsó, Á., & Schäfer, C. M. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936366 · Cited by 32
“…of long-term dynamical simulations and the uncertainties related to the extent of habitable zones themselves (see, e.g., Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013), we use a semi-major axis A76, page 16 of 32 range of between 0.75 and 1.5 au to define “potentially habitable planets” for…”
MethodInfluentialA new method for finding nearby white dwarfs exoplanets and detecting biosignatures
Limbach, M. A., Vanderburg, A. M., Stevenson, K. B., Blouin, S., Morley, C. V., Lustig‐Yaeger, J., Soares-Furtado, M., & Janson, M. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2823 · Cited by 29
The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Blanco-Pozo, J., Perger, M., Damasso, M., Anglada-Escudé, G., Ribas, I., Baroch, D., Caballero, J. A., Cifuentes, C., Jeffers, S. V., Lafarga, M., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245053 · Cited by 29
Terminator Habitability: The Case for Limited Water Availability on M-dwarf Planets
Lobo, A. H., Shields, A. L., Palubski, I., & Wolf, E. T. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aca970 · Cited by 29
Haberle, R. M., Catling, D. C., Carr, M. H., & Zahnle, K. J. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139060172.017 · Cited by 32
Long-Term Planetary Habitability and the Carbonate-Silicate Cycle
Rushby, A., Johnson, M. T., Mills, B. J. W., Watson, A. J., & Claire, M. W. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1693 · Cited by 32
“…climate model with an Earth-like atmospheric water vapor profile, derived from a 1 bar, cloud-and ozone-free, N 2 -dominated model atmosphere, which includes CO 2 and H 2 O absorption coefficients from the HITRAN and HITEMP line-by-line databases (Haqq-Misra et al., 2008; Kopparapu et al., 2013).”
Stellar and Planetary Parameters for K2's Late-type Dwarf Systems from C1 to C5
Martinez, A. O., Crossfield, I. J. M., Schlieder, J. E., Dressing, C. D., Obermeier, C., Livingston, J. H., Ciceri, S., Peacock, S., Beichman, C., Lépine, S., et al. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa56c7 · Cited by 28
Roberge, A., Rizzo, M., Lincowski, A., Arney, G., Stark, C. C., Robinson, T. D., Snyder, G. F., Pueyo, L. A., Zimmerman, N. T., Jansen, T., et al. (2017) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/aa8fc4 · Cited by 26
“The modern solar system is a key benchmark since modern Earth is the linchpin of astronomers’ definition of the stellar habitable zone (e.g., Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationWarming early Mars with climate cycling: The effect of CO2 - H2 collision-induced absorption
Hayworth, B., Kopparapu, R., Haqq-Misra, J. D., Batalha, N. E., Payne, R. C., Foley, B. J., Ikwut-Ukwa, M., & Kasting, J. F. (2020) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2020.113770 · Cited by 28
Self-citationArnscheidt, C. W., & Rothman, D. H. (2020) · Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.2020.0303 · Cited by 28
The K2-OjOS Project: New and revisited planets and candidates in K2 campaigns 5, 16, & 18
Castro-González, A., Díez-Alonso, E., Blanco, J. M., Livingston, J. H., de Leon, J. P., Lillo-Box, J., Korth, J., Menéndez, S. F., Recio, J. M., Izquierdo‐Ruiz, F., et al. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab2669 · Cited by 28
Changing spatial distribution of water flow charts major change in Mars’s greenhouse effect
Kite, E. S., Mischna, M. A., Fan, B., Morgan, A. M., Wilson, S. A., & Richardson, M. I. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abo5894 · Cited by 29
“This is unexpected, as regulation of P co 2 is central to our understanding of planetary habit-ability ( 7 , 8 , 37 ).”
The orbital eccentricity distribution of planets orbiting M dwarfs
Sagear, S., & Ballard, S. A. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2217398120 · Cited by 28
Circumstellar habitable zones for deep terrestrial biospheres
McMahon, S., O’Malley-James, J. T., & Parnell, J. (2013) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2013.07.002 · Cited by 32
Quarles, B., & Lissauer, J. (2018) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aaa966 · Cited by 20
“The inner edge of the empirical habitable zone (1.78 S⊕) is represented by remp and the outer edge (0.32 S⊕) by rout (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialGliese 49: activity evolution and detection of a super-Earth
Perger, M., Scandariato, G., Ribas, I., Morales, J. C., Affer, L., Azzaro, M., Amado, P. J., Anglada-Escudé, G., Baroch, D., Barrado, D., et al. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935192 · Cited by 28
“…(6)Schöfer et al. (2019), (7)González-Álvarez et al. (2019), (8)Høg et al. (1998), (9)Skrutskie et al. (2006), (10)this work, (11)Díez Alonso et al. (2019), (12)Reiners et al. (2018b), (13)recent Venus/early Mars habitable zones (HZ) following Kopparapu et al. (2013). companion is a flaring M5.”
InfluentialAsteroid flux towards circumprimary habitable zones in binary star systems: I. Statistical Overview
Bancelin, D., Pilat-Lohinger, E., Eggl, S., Maindl, T., Schafer, C., Speith, R., & Dvorak, R. (2015) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201526430 · Cited by 6
Zain, P. S., de Elía, G. C., Ronco, M. P., & Guilera, O. M. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201730848 · Cited by 26
“When we use the conservative limits defined by Kopparapu et al. (2013) instead of the optimistic limits that we used here, we find that both scenarios are equally e ffi cient.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTides on Other Earths: Implications for Exoplanet and Palaeo‐Tidal Simulations
Blackledge, B. W., Green, M., Barnes, R., & Way, M. J. (2020) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2019gl085746 · Cited by 27
“These conditions determine the extent of the Habitable Zone, the theoretical shell around a given star at which liquid water could exist, given the appropriate climatic conditions (Kopparapu et al., 2013).”
BackgroundStellar flares versus luminosity: XUV-induced atmospheric escape and planetary habitability
Atri, D., & Mogan, S. R. C. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slaa166 · Cited by 30
“If these protoatmospheres can be completely stripped away, they can be replaced by secondary atmospheres, like we see in Solar system terrestrial planets (e.g. Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTransits of Known Planets Orbiting a Naked-eye Star
Kane, S. R., Yalçınkaya, S., Osborn, H. P., Dalba, P. A., Nielsen, L. D., Vanderburg, A. M., Močnik, T., Hinkel, N. R., Ostberg, C. M., Esmer, E. M., et al. (2020) · Technical University of Denmark, DTU Orbit (Technical University of Denmark, DTU) · Cited by 27
Super-Earths, M Dwarfs, and Photosynthetic Organisms: Habitability in the Lab
Claudi, R., Alei, E., Battistuzzi, M., Cocola, L., Erculiani, M. S., Pozzer, A. C., Salasnich, B., Simionato, D., Squicciarini, V., Poletto, L., et al. (2020) · Life · doi:10.3390/life11010010 · Cited by 28
Checlair, J., Villanueva, G. L., Hayworth, B., Olson, S. L., Komacek, T. D., Robinson, T. D., Popović, P., Yang, H., & Abbot, D. S. (2021) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abdb36 · Cited by 30
“This of course would depend on the planet’s position in its star’s habitable zone, as this will determine the length of time the planet remains habitable (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationThe role of planetary interior in the long-term evolution of atmospheric CO2on Earth-like exoplanets
Oosterloo, M., Höning, D., Kamp, I., & van der Tak, F. F. S. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039664 · Cited by 29
Early Habitability and Crustal Decarbonation of a Stagnant‐Lid Venus
Höning, D., Baumeister, P., Grenfell, J. L., Tosi, N., & Way, M. J. (2021) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2021je006895 · Cited by 29
HADES RV program with HARPS-N at the TNG
Affer, L., Damasso, M., Micela, G., Poretti, E., Scandariato, G., Maldonado, J., Lanza, A. F., Covino, E., Rubio, A. G., Hernández, J. I. G., et al. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834868 · Cited by 27
Clouds in the atmospheres of extrasolar planets
Kitzmann, D. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201630029 · Cited by 27
“Following the assumptions of Kasting et al. (1993) and Kopparapu et al. (2013), I use an atmosphere composed of N2, CO2, and H2O.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBattistuzzi, M., Cocola, L., Claudi, R., Pozzer, A. C., Segalla, A., Simionato, D., Morosinotto, T., Poletto, L., & Rocca, N. L. (2023) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2023.1070359 · Cited by 27
“Terrestrial-like exoplanets are rather common around M-dwarfs (M class Main Sequence stars, or also Red Dwarf stars) (Bonfils et al., 2013; Kopparapu et al., 2013; Hsu et al., 2020), very faint and cool stars (Pecaut and Mamajek, 2013) with most of their emission centred in the far-red (700 – 750 nm) and infrared (750…”
BackgroundConstraints on the structure of hot exozodiacal dust belts
Kirchschlager, F., Wolf, S., Krivov, A. V., Mutschke, H., & Brunngräber, R. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx202 · Cited by 27
“The temperature range is 210 to 320 K, equivalent to the habitable zone location in the solar system (e. g. Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundEVOLUTIONARY CLIMATE TRACKS OF EARTH-LIKE PLANETS
Kadoya, S., & Tajika, E. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/815/1/l7 · Cited by 25
Inner Edge of Habitable Zones for Earth‐Sized Planets With Various Surface Water Distributions
Kodama, T., Genda, H., O’ishi, R., Abe‐Ouchi, A., & Abe, Y. (2019) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2019je006037 · Cited by 27
Exo-Milankovitch Cycles. II. Climates of G-dwarf Planets in Dynamically Hot Systems
Deitrick, R., Barnes, R., Bitz, C. M., Fleming, D., Charnay, B., Meadows, V., Wilhelm, C., Armstrong, J., & Quinn, T. (2018) · doi:10.7892/boris.126814 · Cited by 27
Self-citationWhy Do We Find Ourselves Around a Yellow Star Instead of a Red Star?
Wolf, E. T., Haqq-Misra, J. D., & Kopparapu, R. (n.d.) · NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) · Cited by 31
Self-citationSengupta, S. (2016) · Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy · doi:10.1007/s12036-016-9390-0 · Cited by 26
O’Malley-James, J. T., Greaves, J. S., Raven, J. A., & Cockell, C. S. (2015) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2014.1229 · Cited by 26
JWST-TST DREAMS: NIRSpec/PRISM Transmission Spectroscopy of the Habitable Zone Planet TRAPPIST-1 e
Espinoza, N., Allen, N. H., Glidden, A., Lewis, N. K., Seager, S., Cañas, C. I., Grant, D., Gressier, A., Courreges, S., Stevenson, K. B., et al. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adf42e · Cited by 26
Katyal, N., Nikolaou, A., Godolt, M., Grenfell, J. L., Tosi, N., Schreier, F., & Rauer, H. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab0d85 · Cited by 26
Metadata
- Authors
- Kopparapu, R. K., Ramirez, R., Kasting, J. F., Eymet, V., Robinson, T. D., Mahadevan, S., Terrien, R. C., Domagal-Goldman, S., Meadows, V., & Deshpande, R.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Bordeaux (FR)
- NASA Astrobiology Institute (US)
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2013-02-26
- Volume
- 765
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 131
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2047751764
- Cited by
- 1,615
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2026: 89 · 2025: 115 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 125 · 2022: 110 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 157 · 2019: 177 · 2018: 149 · 2017: 109 · 2016: 115 · 2015: 83 · 2014: 95 · 2013: 55
- FWCI
- 61.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Oskar-Bordeaux (Universite de Bordeaux) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1126413, 1006676)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NNH05ZDA001C)
- Pennsylvania Space Grant Consortium
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities
- University of Pennsylvania
- University of Washington
- Pennsylvania State University
- NASA Astrobiology Institute
- NASA Headquarters
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Space Science and Extraterrestrial Life
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Space and Planetary Science › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Keywords
- habitable zone, main-sequence stars, terrestrial exoplanets, water loss, runaway greenhouse, stellar effective temperature, stellar flux, M dwarfs, K stars, F and G stars
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