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HABITABLE ZONES AROUND MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS: NEW ESTIMATES
Open accessAbstract
Identifying terrestrial planets in the habitable zones (HZs) of other stars is one of the primary goals of ongoing radial velocity (RV) and transit exoplanet surveys and proposed future space missions. Most current estimates of the boundaries of the HZ are based on one-dimensional (1D), cloud-free, climate model calculations by Kasting et al. However, this model used band models that were based on older HITRAN and HITEMP line-by-line databases. The inner edge of the HZ in the Kasting et al. model was determined by loss of water, and the outer edge was determined by the maximum greenhouse provided by a CO 2 atmosphere. A conservative estimate for the width of the HZ from this model in our solar system is 0.95–1.67 AU. Here an updated 1D radiative–convective, cloud-free climate model is used to obtain new estimates for HZ widths around F, G, K, and M stars. New H 2 O and CO 2 absorption coefficients, derived from the HITRAN 2008 and HITEMP 2010 line-by-line databases, are important improvements to the climate model. According to the new model, the water-loss (inner HZ) and maximum greenhouse (outer HZ) limits for our solar system are at 0.99 and 1.70 AU, respectively, suggesting that the present Earth lies near the inner edge. Additional calculations are performed for stars with effective temperatures between 2600 and 7200 K, and the results are presented in parametric form, making them easy to apply to actual stars. The new model indicates that, near the inner edge of the HZ, there is no clear distinction between runaway greenhouse and water-loss limits for stars with T eff ≲ 5000 K, which has implications for ongoing planet searches around K and M stars. To assess the potential habitability of extrasolar terrestrial planets, we propose using stellar flux incident on a planet rather than equilibrium temperature. This removes the dependence on planetary (Bond) albedo, which varies depending on the host star's spectral type. We suggest that conservative estimates of the HZ (water-loss and maximum greenhouse limits) should be used for current RV surveys and Kepler mission to obtain a lower limit on η ⊕ , so that future flagship missions like TPF-C and Darwin are not undersized. Our model does not include the radiative effects of clouds; thus, the actual HZ boundaries may extend further in both directions than the estimates just given.
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“The new Kopparapu et al. (2013) habitable zone model recalculates the classic Kasting et al. (1993) habitable zone with updated model inputs, and its habitable zone extends from 0.99 to 1.70 AU.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“However, this study did not include the effects of clouds or circulation of moisture, either of which could stabilize a planet at the inner edge of the habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“In this updated conservative estimation, Earth is very near the inner edge of the current habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“The location of the habitable zone depends on how bright the star is (Kopparapu et al., 2013); for brighter stars, the habitable zone is shifted outward because planets must be farther away from these stars to maintain temperatures necessary for liquid water, and for dimmer stars, the habitable zone is shifted inward (Fig. 18).”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al., 2013
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Cites
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MethodThe HITRAN 2008 molecular spectroscopic database
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Habitable Zones around Main Sequence Stars
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“Rayleigh scattering by water was also considered by Kasting (1988); Kasting et al. (1993), but these authors used the scattering coefficient for air because the coefficient for H2O was not available, or at least not known to them.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationHITEMP, the high-temperature molecular spectroscopic database
Rothman, L. S., Gordon, I. E., Barber, R. J., Dothe, H., Gamache, R. R., Goldman, A. S., Perevalov, V. I., Tashkun, S. A., & Tennyson, J. (2010) · Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2010.05.001 · Cited by 2,296 · cited 1×
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“As with the inner edge model, a more optimistic empirical limit on the OHZ can be estimated based on the observation that early Mars was warm enough for liquid water to flow on its surface (Pollack et al. 1987; Bibring et al. 2006).”
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Cited by
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Items 701–800 of 1,001
Planetary Magnetism as a Parameter in Exoplanet Habitability
McIntyre, S. R. N., Lineweaver, C. H., & Ireland, M. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz667 · Cited by 20
“Since a lack of magnetic moment has been connected with the loss of atmosphere and depletion of water supplies, this group of exoplanets would not have protection against stellar and cosmic irradiation to maintain liquid water over a prolonged period of time, despite residing in the CHZ.”
BackgroundInfluentialDandouras, I., Blanc, M., Fossati, L., Gerasimov, M. V., Guenther, E. W., Kislyakova, K. G., Lammer, H., Lin, Y., Marty, B. M., Mazelle, C. X., et al. (2020) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-020-00736-0 · Cited by 22
“Usually, ηE is calculated separately for each stellar spectral 1014 type (Kasting, 1993; Kopparapu, 2013).”
MethodBarclay, T., Quintana, E. V., Adams, F. C., Ciardi, D. R., Huber, D., Foreman-Mackey, D. T., Montet, B. T., & Caldwell, D. A. (2015) · University of Southern Queensland ePrints (University of Southern Queensland) · Cited by 20
How does the background atmosphere affect the onset of the runaway greenhouse?
Chaverot, G., Turbet, M., Bolmont, É., & Leconte, J. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142286 · Cited by 20
Savanov, I. S., & Shematovich, V. I. (2021) · Astrophysical Bulletin · doi:10.1134/s199034132104012x · Cited by 20
Clement, M. S., Quintana, E. V., & Quarles, B. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac549e · Cited by 21
A quarter century of spectroscopic monitoring of the nearby M dwarf Gl 514
Damasso, M., Perger, M., Almenara, J. M., Nardiello, D., Pérez-Torres, M. Á., Sozzetti, A., Hara, N., Quirrenbach, A., Bonfils, X., Osorio, M. R. Z., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243522 · Cited by 20
3D Orbital Architecture of a Dwarf Binary System and Its Planetary Companion
Curiel, S., Ortiz-León, G. N., Mioduszewski, A. J., & Sánchez-Bermúdez, J. (2022) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ac7c66 · Cited by 20
The SOPHIE search for northern extrasolar planets
Heidari, N., Boisse, I., Hara, N., Wilson, T. G., Kiefer, F., Hébrard, G., Philipot, F., Hoyer, S., Stassun, K. G., Henry, G. W., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347897 · Cited by 20
Convective shutdown in the atmospheres of lava worlds
Nicholls, H., Pierrehumbert, R. T., Lichtenberg, T., Soucasse, L., & Smeets, S. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae2772 · Cited by 30
Transits of extrasolar moons around luminous giant planets
Heller, R. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527496 · Cited by 20
“On the other hand, there is a minim energy flux for a moon to prevent a global snowball state that is estimated to be 0.35 times the solar illumination absorbed by Earth (83 W m−2, Kopparapu et al. 2013), which is only weakly dependent on the object’s mass.”
InfluentialTransit detection of a ‘starshade’ at the inner lagrange point of an exoplanet
Gaidos, E. J. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1078 · Cited by 21
“Because of stellar luminosity evolution, all Earth-like planets within the “conservative” habitable zone of solar-mass stars (0.95-1.67 AU Kopparapu et al. 2013) will eventually orbit interior to the habitable zone and meet this fate.”
BackgroundInfluentialDelrez, L., Gillon, M., Queloz, D. P., Demory, B.-O., Almleaky, Y., de Wit, J., Jehin, E., Triaud, A. H. M. J., Barkaoui, K., Burdanov, A., et al. (2018) · Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1806.11205 · Cited by 20
In the Presence of a Wrecking Ball: Orbital Stability in the HR 5183 System
Kane, S. R., & Blunt, S. C. (2019) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab4c3e · Cited by 20
How surfaces shape the climate of habitable exoplanets
Madden, J., & Kaltenegger, L. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa387 · Cited by 25
“To establish the incident irradiation which produces similar surface temperatures for different host stars, we reduce the incident stellar flux at the moist greenhouse HZ limits for planet models with 1 Earth-mass (Kopparapu et al. 2013) and fit it to the incident flux of present-day Earth for a G2V star to estimate t…”
BackgroundInfluentialDynamical Packing in the Habitable Zone: The Case of Beta CVn
Kane, S. R., Turnbull, M., Fulton, B. J., Rosenthal, L. J., Howard, A. W., Isaacson, H. T., Marcy, G. W., & Weiss, L. M. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab9ffe · Cited by 20
Mancini, L., Lillo-Box, J., Southworth, J. H., Borsato, L., Gandolfi, D., Ciceri, S., Barrado, D., Brahm, R., & Henning, T. K. (2016) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201526357/pdf · Cited by 20
The Cosmic Shoreline Revisited: A Metric for Atmospheric Retention Informed by Hydrodynamic Escape
Ji, X., Chatterjee, R. D., Coy, B. P., & Kite, E. S. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adfe69 · Cited by 20
Optimal measures for characterizing water-rich super-Earths
Madhusudhan, N., & Redfield, S. (2014) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550414000421 · Cited by 19
“Our notions of habitability are commonly based on equilibrium temperatures (Teq) where liquid water can sustain, assuming that H2O is indeed abundant in the planets in the first place (Kasting 1993; Selsis 2007; Abe et al. 2011; Kaltenegger et al. 2013; Kopparapu et al. 2013a, b).”
BackgroundEvolution of the habitable zone of low-mass stars
Valle, G., Dell'Omodarme, M., Moroni, P. G. P., & Degl’Innocenti, S. (2014) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201323350 · Cited by 20
“3 with those obtained without the constant albedo assumption and using the models by Kopparapu et al. (2013) (hereafter K13).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialVarela, J., Brun, A. S., Zarka, P., Strugarek, A., Pantellini, F. G. E., & Réville, V. (2022) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2022sw003164 · Cited by 19
“The space weather conditions inside the stellar habitable zone change with the star characteristics (Airapetian et al., 2020; Cuntz & Guinan, 2016; Johnstone, Güdel, Brott, & Lüftinger, 2015; Kasting et al., 1993; Kopparapu et al., 2013; Tarter et al., 2007).”
BackgroundSpinelli, R., Gallo, E., Haardt, F., Caldiroli, A., Biassoni, F., Borsa, F., & Rauscher, E. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acc336 · Cited by 19
Tamburo, P., Muirhead, P. S., & Dressing, C. D. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acd1de · Cited by 25
HAZMAT. IX. An Analysis of the UV and X-Ray Evolution of Low-mass Stars in the Era of Gaia
Richey-Yowell, T., Shkolnik, E. L., Schneider, A. C., Peacock, S., Huseby, L., Jackman, J. A. G., Barman, T., Osby, E., & Meadows, V. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acd2dc · Cited by 20
Self-citationThe EBLM Project—From False Positives to Benchmark Stars and Circumbinary Exoplanets
Maxted, P., Triaud, A., & Martin, D. V. (2023) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe9120498 · Cited by 6
“Despite their intrinsic faintness, field M-dwarfs are attractive targets to identify rocky planets orbiting in the habitable zone of their host star, such as the seven planets orbiting the star TRAPPIST-1 ( M ⋆ ≈ 0.08 M ⊙ ) [2–4].”
BackgroundInfluentialA POPULATION-BASED HABITABLE ZONE PERSPECTIVE
Zsom, A. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/813/1/9 · Cited by 19
“The earliest work on the HZ (Hart 1979) did not include the carbon–silicate cycle, and their HZ limits were narrow compared to later work with the carbon–silicate cycle (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundStatistical-likelihood Exo-Planetary Habitability Index (SEPHI)
Rodríguez-Mozos, J. M., & Moya, A. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1910 · Cited by 19
Stellar Activity Effects on Moist Habitable Terrestrial Atmospheres around M Dwarfs
Badhan, M. A., Wolf, E. T., Kopparapu, R., Arney, G., Kempton, E. M.-R., Deming, D., & Domagal-Goldman, S. D. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab32e8 · Cited by 19
Self-citationGodin, P. J., Moores, J. E., Ramirez, R. M., Campbell, C., Strong, K., Nguyen, T. G., & Wizenberg, T. (2020) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2019je006357 · Cited by 20
Self-citationInterstellar Communication Network. I. Overview and Assumptions
Hippke, M. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab5dca · Cited by 25
“We are observing thousands of exoplanets (Winn & Fabrycky 2015), some of them potentially habitable (Quintana et al. 2014; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Dressing & Charbonneau 2015).”
BackgroundImpact of Tides on the Potential for Exoplanets to Host Exomoons
Tokadjian, A., & Piro, A. L. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abb29e · Cited by 19
“The two gray vertical lines mark the optimistic habitable zone for G-type stars as described in Kopparapu et al. (2013), ranging from 0.29 SU to 1.78 SU.”
BackgroundInfluentialTOI 122b and TOI 237b: Two Small Warm Planets Orbiting Inactive M Dwarfs Found by TESS
Waalkes, W. C., Berta-Thompson, Z. K., Collins, K. A., Feinstein, A. D., Tofflemire, B. M., Rojas-Ayala, B., Silverstein, M. L., Newton, E. R., Ricker, G. R., Vanderspek, R. K., et al. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abc3b9 · Cited by 19
The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Gonzalez-Alvarez, E., Osorio, M. R. Z., Caballero, J. A., Sanz‐Forcada, J., Béjar, V. J. S., González-Cuesta, L., Dreizler, S., Bauer, F. F., Rodríguez, E., Tal-Or, L., et al. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201937050 · Cited by 19
The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Lalitha, S., Baroch, D., Morales, J. C., Passegger, V. M., Bauer, F. F., Guillén, C. C., Dreizler, S., Oshagh, M., Reiners, A., Ribas, I., et al. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935534 · Cited by 19
HADES RV Programme with HARPS-N at TNG
Perger, M., Ribas, I., Damasso, M., Morales, J. C., Affer, L., Mascareño, A. S., Micela, G., Maldonado, J., Hernández, J. I. G., Rebolo, R., et al. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731307 · Cited by 19
“…et al. (2015); (4) Hünsch et al. (1999); (5) Høg et al. (2000); (6) Zacharias et al. (2012); (7) Monet et al. (2003); (8) Cutri et al. (2003); (9) Gaia Collaboration (2016); (10) secular acceleration following Montet et al. (2014); (11) habitable zones (HZ) following Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
InfluentialInitiation of a Runaway Greenhouse in a Cloudy Column
Popp, M., Schmidt, H., & Marotzke, J. (2014) · Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences · doi:10.1175/jas-d-13-047.1 · Cited by 18
Alberti, T., Carbone, V. I., Lepreti, F., & Vecchio, A. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa78a2 · Cited by 18
“…2017; Mayor & Queloz 1995; Marcy & Butler 1996; Petigura et al. 2013; Gillon et al. 2016, 2017) and the presumed habitability of some of them (Kasting et al. 1993; Scharf 2009; Spiegel et al. 2008; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Gillon et al. 2017), are changing our point of view on planetary science.”
BackgroundTOI-4010: A System of Three Large Short-period Planets with a Massive Long-period Companion
Kunimoto, M., Vanderburg, A. M., Huang, C. X., Davis, M. R., Affer, L., Cameron, A. C., Charbonneau, D., Cosentino, R., Damasso, M., Dumusque, X., et al. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acd537 · Cited by 18
Planet Occurrence Rate Density Models Including Stellar Effective Temperature
Garrett, D., Savransky, D., & Belikov, R. (2018) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/aadff1 · Cited by 18
Three Red Giants With Substellar-Mass Companions
Adamczyk, M. (2016) · Texas ScholarWorks (Texas Digital Library) · doi:10.15781/t2k52t · Cited by 18
Geothermal heating enhances atmospheric asymmetries on synchronously rotating planets
Haqq-Misra, J. D., & Kopparapu, R. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2052 · Cited by 18
“Planets rotating faster than this limit may still be prone to synchronous rotation, while planets rotating slower than this limit will be beyond the tidal locking distance and outside the liquid water habitable zone (Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEarth: Atmospheric Evolution of a Habitable Planet
Olson, S. L., Schwieterman, E. W., Reinhard, C. T., & Lyons, T. W. (2018) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 18
The HADES RV programme with HARPS-N at TNG
Pinamonti, M., Sozzetti, A., Giacobbe, P., Damasso, M., Scandariato, G., Perger, M., Hernández, J. I. G., Lanza, A. F., Maldonado, J., Micela, G., et al. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834969 · Cited by 18
“Following the definition of habitable zone (HZ) from A126, page 9 of 17 Kopparapu et al. (2013), we computed the inner edge of the HZ for GJ 685, with the most optimistic limits (“recent Venus”), which correspond to a semi-major axis of aHZ = 0.190 AU, significantly larger than the orbit of GJ 685…”
MethodInfluentialConstraining exoplanet interiors using observations of their atmospheres
Lichtenberg, T., Shorttle, O., Teske, J. K., & Kempton, E. M.-R. (2025) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.ads3360 · Cited by 17
Predicting multiple planet stability and habitable zone companions in the TESS era
Agnew, M., Maddison, S., Horner, J., & Kane, S. (2019) · Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz345 · Cited by 13
Could the Migration of Jupiter Have Accelerated the Atmospheric Evolution of Venus?
Kane, S. R., Vervoort, P., Horner, J., & Pozuelos, F. J. (2020) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/abae63 · Cited by 17
“Such potential for past Venusian surface habitability has been the basis for defining the empirically derived inner edge of the “Habitable Zone” (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014; Kane et al. 2016).”
BackgroundClimate diversity in the solar-like habitable zone due to varying background gas pressure
Paradise, A., Fan, B. L., Kristen Menou, A., & Lee, C. (2021) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2020.114301 · Cited by 21
Faster Exo-Earth yield for HabEx and LUVOIR via extreme precision radial velocity prior knowledge
Morgan, R. M., Savransky, D., Turmon, M., Mennesson, B. P., Dula, W., Keithly, D., Mamajek, E. E., Newman, P., Plavchan, P. P., Robinson, T. D., et al. (2021) · Journal of Astronomical Telescopes Instruments and Systems · doi:10.1117/1.jatis.7.2.021220 · Cited by 17
Self-citationDetecting Oceans on Exoplanets with Phase-dependent Spectral Principal Component Analysis
Ryan, D. J., & Robinson, T. D. (2022) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ac4af3 · Cited by 17
Self-citationAtmospheric dynamics of a near tidally locked Earth-sized planet
Kane, S. R. (2022) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01626-x · Cited by 18
“A particular area of focus has been the investigation of planets that reside within their star’s Habitable Zone (HZ), defined as the region around a star where a planet may have surface liquid water provided sufficient atmospheric pressure [61, 51, 67, 68].”
BackgroundNo Evidence for More Earth-sized Planets in the Habitable Zone of Kepler's M versus FGK Stars
Bergsten, G. J., Pascucci, I., Hardegree-Ullman, K. K., Fernandes, R. B., Christiansen, J. L., & Mulders, G. D. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ad03ea · Cited by 17
Ranjan, S., Schwieterman, E. W., Leung, M., Harman, C. E., & Hu, R. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad037c · Cited by 22
The Geochemical Potential for Metabolic Processes on the Sub-Neptune Exoplanet K2-18b
Glein, C. R. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad3079 · Cited by 19
Dynamical Viability Assessment for Habitable Worlds Observatory Targets
Kane, S. R., Li, Z., Turnbull, M., Dressing, C. D., & Harada, C. K. (2024) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ad6a50 · Cited by 17
In situ models for planet assembly around cool stars
Hansen, B. (2014) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550414000159 · Cited by 10
Modelling the inner debris disc of HR 8799
Contro, B., Horner, J., Wittenmyer, R. A., Marshall, J. P., & Hinse, T. C. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1935 · Cited by 15
“We estimated the current approximate boundaries of the HZ to be 1.974 (inner edge) to 3.407 au (outer edge), following Selsis et al. (2007) and Kopparapu et al. (2013), using the stellar parameters shown in Table 1.”
MethodInfluentialSurface Variability of Short-wavelength Radiation and Temperature on Exoplanets around M Dwarfs
Zhang, X., Tian, F., Wang, Y., Dudhia, J., & Chen, M. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa62fc · Cited by 17
“Traditionally, the range of the HZ is computed by cloud-free 1D radiative convective adjustment models (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
MethodCharacterizing Exoplanet Habitability
Robinson, T. D. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_67 · Cited by 25
Self-citationLora, J. M., Kataria, T., & Gao, P. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaa132 · Cited by 16
“…various aspects of the atmospheres and climates of putative terrestrial exoplanets—including their habitability, surface climate, and atmospheric circulation—with an emphasis on Earth-like conditions (Kaspi & Showman 2015; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Merlis & Shneider 2010; Shields et al. 2013, 2016).”
BackgroundBiofluorescent worlds: global biological fluorescence as a biosignature
O’Malley-James, J. T., & Kaltenegger, L. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2411 · Cited by 20
“The HZ is defined as the space around a star where liquid water on the surface of a planet is possible (see e.g. Kasting et al., 1993; Kopparapu et al., 2013; Ramirez & Kaltenegger 2017).”
BackgroundOcean Worlds in the Outer Regions of the Solar System (Review)
Shematovich, V. I. (2018) · Solar System Research · doi:10.1134/s0038094618050076 · Cited by 18
Transiting planet candidate from K2 with the longest period
Giles, H. A. C., Osborn, H. P., Blanco-Cuaresma, S., Lovis, C., Bayliss, D., Eggenberger, P., Cameron, A. C., Kristiansen, M. H., Turner, O., Bouchy, F., et al. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833569 · Cited by 17
“Therefore, any moons may well be near the habitable zone, based on the stellar effective temperature and luminosity (Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014), although it would have been much cooler for most of the main-sequence lifetime of this star.”
BackgroundMarfil, E., Tabernero, H. M., Montes, D., Caballero, J. A., Soto, M. G., Hernández, J. I. G., Kaminski, A., Nagel, E., Jeffers, S. V., Reiners, A., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa058 · Cited by 17
Robust asteroseismic properties of the bright planet host HD 38529
Ball, W. H., Chaplin, W. J., Nielsen, M. B., González-Cuesta, L., Mathur, S., Santos, Â. R. G., García, R. A., Buzasi, D. L., Mosser, B., Deal, M., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3190 · Cited by 17
“Our revised stellar properties affect the extent of the habitable zone (HZ, e.g. Kasting, Whitmire & Reynolds 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014) around HD 38529.”
BackgroundQuantifying the Influence of Jupiter on the Earth’s Orbital Cycles
Horner, J., Vervoort, P., Kane, S. R., Ceja, A. Y., Waltham, D. A., Gilmore, J. B., & Kirtland Turner, S. (2020) · University of Southern Queensland ePrints (University of Southern Queensland) · Cited by 17
ON THE INCLINATION AND HABITABILITY OF THE HD 10180 SYSTEM
Kane, S. R., & Gelino, D. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/792/2/111 · Cited by 17
“The empirically derived HZ boundaries of Kasting et al. (1993) have recently been replaced by new calculations by Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014).”
BackgroundMethodThe role of sea-ice albedo in the climate of slowly rotating aquaplanets
Salameh, J., Popp, M., & Marotzke, J. (2017) · Climate Dynamics · doi:10.1007/s00382-017-3548-6 · Cited by 17
Ding, F., & Wordsworth, R. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab204f · Cited by 16
The best place and time to live in the Milky Way
Spinelli, R., Ghirlanda, G., Haardt, F., Ghisellini, G., & Scuderi, G. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039507 · Cited by 17
“Potentially habitable exoplanets are identified based on their location within the circumstellar habitable zone (CHZ; e.g., Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundDietrich, J., & Apai, D. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abc560 · Cited by 17
Checlair, J., Abbot, D. S., Webber, R. J., Feng, Y. K., Bean, J. L., Schwieterman, E. W., Stark, C. C., Robinson, T. D., Kempton, E. M.-R., Alcabes, O. D. N., et al. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1903.05211 · Cited by 17
Self-citationAn extremely low-density and temperate giant exoplanetPreprint
Santerne, A., Malavolta, L., Kosiarek, M., Dai, F., Dressing, C. D., Dumusque, X., Hara, N., Lopez, T., Mortier, A., Vanderburg, A. M., et al. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1911.07355 · Cited by 17
Niedzielski, A., Villaver, E., Wolszczan, A., Adamów, M., Kowalik, K., Maciejewski, G., Nowak, G., García-Hernández, D. A., Deka, B., & Adamczyk, M. (2014) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201424399 · Cited by 17
Self-limited tidal heating and prolonged magma oceans in the L 98-59 system
Nicholls, H., Guimond, C. M., Hay, H. C. F. C., Chatterjee, R. D., Lichtenberg, T., & Pierrehumbert, R. T. (2025) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staf1167 · Cited by 26
Rotman, Y., Komacek, T. D., Villanueva, G. L., Fauchez, T. J., & May, E. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acaa3f · Cited by 16
Multibeam Blind Search of Targeted SETI Observations toward 33 Exoplanet Systems with FAST
Luan, X.-H., Tao, Z.-Z., Zhao, H., Huang, B.-L., Li, S.-Y., Liu, C., Wang, H., Liu, W., Zhang, T.-J., Gajjar, V., et al. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acb706 · Cited by 17
Venus as an anchor point for planetary habitability
Kane, S. R., & Byrne, P. K. (2024) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-024-02228-5 · Cited by 16
“…a quantifiable planetary habitability framework is to assume a surface temperature range that allows liquid water to be present on an Earth-like world, which in turn defines the habitable zone (HZ) of a star (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014; Kane et al. 2016; Hill et al. 2023).”
BackgroundGlauser, A. M., Quanz, S. P., Hansen, J. T., Dannert, F., Ireland, M. J., Linz, H., Absil, O., Alei, E., Angerhausen, D., Birbacher, T., et al. (2024) · SPIE Optical and Infrared Interferometry and Imaging · doi:10.1117/12.3019090 · Cited by 16
“5 R ⊕ ), terrestrial exoplanets in the optimistic and conservative habitable zone 38 and for exo-Earth candidates (EEC, ∼ 0 .”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe radius distribution of M dwarf-hosted planets and its evolution
Gaidos, E. J., Ali, A., Kraus, A. L., & Rowe, J. F. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae2207 · Cited by 16
Asteroseismology of the Nearby K Dwarf σ Draconis Using the Keck Planet Finder and TESS
Hon, M., Huber, D., Li, Y., Metcalfe, Τ. S., Bedding, T. R., Ong, J. M. J., Chontos, A., Rubenzahl, R. A., Halverson, S., García, R. A., et al. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad76a9 · Cited by 16
The SOPHIE search for northern extrasolar planets
Rey, J., Hébrard, G., Bouchy, F., Bourrier, V., Boisse, I., Santos, N. C., Arnold, L., Astudillo-Defru, N., Bonfils, X., Borgniet, S., et al. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201630089 · Cited by 16
“We used the habitable zone calculator 4 based on the work by Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
MethodObliquity Evolution of the Potentially Habitable Exoplanet Kepler-62f
Quarles, B., Barnes, J. W., Lissauer, J. J., & Chambers, J. (2019) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2018.1932 · Cited by 16
“Several studies of the habitability of a planet include many such assumptions that vary between models (Kasting et al. , 1993; Kopparapu et al. , 2013, 2014, 2016), where we present results that survey the effect of coupled orbital and obliquity variation on the latitudinal surface flux (Williams…”
The effect of high nitrogen pressures on the habitable zone and an appraisal of greenhouse states
Ramirez, R. M. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa603 · Cited by 16
“1), which is consistent with previous work (Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014) (Figure 1).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationEyes on K2-3: A system of three likely sub-Neptunes characterized with HARPS-N and HARPS
Damasso, M., Bonomo, A. S., Astudillo-Defru, N., Bonfils, X., Malavolta, L., Sozzetti, A., Lopez, E., Zeng, L., Haywood, R. D., Irwin, J. M., et al. (2018) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732459/pdf · Cited by 16
Evidence for at least three planet candidates orbiting HD 20794
Feng, F., Tuomi, M., & Jones, H. R. A. (2017) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201730406/pdf · Cited by 16
Direct Imaging of Exoplanets beyond the Radial Velocity Limit: Application to the HD 134987 System
Li, Z., Hildebrandt, S. R., Kane, S. R., Zimmerman, N. T., Girard, J. H., Gonzalez-Quiles, J., & Turnbull, M. (2021) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abf831 · Cited by 16
Lustig‐Yaeger, J., Sotzen, K. S., Stevenson, K. B., Luger, R., May, E., Mayorga, L. C., Mandt, K. E., & Izenberg, N. R. (2022) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ac5034 · Cited by 16
Mettler, J.-N., Quanz, S. P., Helled, R., Olson, S. L., & Schwieterman, E. W. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acbe3c · Cited by 19
Cloutier, R., Artigau, É., Delfosse, X., Malo, L., Moutou, C., Doyon, R., Donati, J. ‐., Cumming, A., Dumusque, X., Hébrard, É., et al. (2018) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aaa54e · Cited by 16
“The dashed-dotted vertical lines indicate the less conservative ‘recent-Venus’ and ‘early-Mars’ HZ limits (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe chaotic nature of TRAPPIST-1 planetary spin states
Vinson, A. M., Tamayo, D., & Hansen, B. M. S. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2113 · Cited by 16
“Much of our interest in this problem is motivated by habitability questions, and these three planets all lie within the estimated habitable zone (Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2016).”
BackgroundBenatti, S., Damasso, M., Desidera, S., Marzari, F., Biazzo, K., Claudi, R., Mauro, M. P. D., Lanza, A. F., Pinamonti, M., Barbato, D., et al. (2020) · BOA (University of Milano-Bicocca) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202037939 · Cited by 16
“The calculation was performed by using the public tool4 based on Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014), assuming a planet of 1 M⊕ and adopting Teff and stellar luminosity from Table 2.”
MethodEvolution of Steam Worlds: Energetic Aspects
Aguichine, A., Batalha, N. M., Fortney, J. J., Nettelmann, N., Owen, J. E., & Kempton, E. M.-R. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/add935 · Cited by 15
Moutou, C., Delfosse, X., Petit, A. C., Donati, J. ‐., Artigau, É., Fouqué, P., Carmona, A., Ould-Elhkim, M., Arnold, L., Cook, N. J., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346813 · Cited by 15
The role of magma oceans in maintaining surface water on rocky planets orbiting M-dwarfs
Moore, K., Cowan, N. B., & Boukaré, C. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3138 · Cited by 15
Novel Atmospheric Dynamics Shape the Inner Edge of the Habitable Zone around White Dwarfs
Zhan, R., Koll, D. D. B., & Ding, F. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad54c1 · Cited by 15
Eta-Earth Revisited II: Deriving a Maximum Number of Earth-Like Habitats in the Galactic Disk
Scherf, M., Lammer, H., & Sproß, L. (2024) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2023.0076 · Cited by 19
Habitability Properties of Circumbinary Planets
Shevchenko, I. I. (2017) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa71b2 · Cited by 16
“Of course, habitable zone science, in its progress, now allows one to make much more rigorous estimates (Cuntz, 2014; Kane & Hinkel, 2013; Kopparapu et al., 2013; Müller & Haghighipour, 2014).”
BackgroundMethodVenus: key to understanding the evolution of terrestrial planets
Wilson, C., Widemann, T., & Ghail, R. (2021) · Experimental Astronomy · doi:10.1007/s10686-021-09766-0 · Cited by 15
“[6] should be a cause of concern for us Earthdwellers! Detailed study of Venus is indispensable if we are to understand what processes determine the inner edge of the habitable zone.”
BackgroundRonco, M. P., & de Elía, G. C. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1773 · Cited by 13
Kollmeier, J., & Raymond, S. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/sly219 · Cited by 10
Metadata
- Authors
- Kopparapu, R. K., Ramirez, R., Kasting, J. F., Eymet, V., Robinson, T. D., Mahadevan, S., Terrien, R. C., Domagal-Goldman, S., Meadows, V., & Deshpande, R.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Bordeaux (FR)
- NASA Astrobiology Institute (US)
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2013-02-26
- Volume
- 765
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 131
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2047751764
- Cited by
- 1,615
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2026: 89 · 2025: 115 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 125 · 2022: 110 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 157 · 2019: 177 · 2018: 149 · 2017: 109 · 2016: 115 · 2015: 83 · 2014: 95 · 2013: 55
- FWCI
- 61.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Oskar-Bordeaux (Universite de Bordeaux) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1126413, 1006676)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NNH05ZDA001C)
- Pennsylvania Space Grant Consortium
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities
- University of Pennsylvania
- University of Washington
- Pennsylvania State University
- NASA Astrobiology Institute
- NASA Headquarters
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Space Science and Extraterrestrial Life
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Space and Planetary Science › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Keywords
- habitable zone, main-sequence stars, terrestrial exoplanets, water loss, runaway greenhouse, stellar effective temperature, stellar flux, M dwarfs, K stars, F and G stars
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