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HABITABLE ZONES AROUND MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS: NEW ESTIMATES
Open accessAbstract
Identifying terrestrial planets in the habitable zones (HZs) of other stars is one of the primary goals of ongoing radial velocity (RV) and transit exoplanet surveys and proposed future space missions. Most current estimates of the boundaries of the HZ are based on one-dimensional (1D), cloud-free, climate model calculations by Kasting et al. However, this model used band models that were based on older HITRAN and HITEMP line-by-line databases. The inner edge of the HZ in the Kasting et al. model was determined by loss of water, and the outer edge was determined by the maximum greenhouse provided by a CO 2 atmosphere. A conservative estimate for the width of the HZ from this model in our solar system is 0.95–1.67 AU. Here an updated 1D radiative–convective, cloud-free climate model is used to obtain new estimates for HZ widths around F, G, K, and M stars. New H 2 O and CO 2 absorption coefficients, derived from the HITRAN 2008 and HITEMP 2010 line-by-line databases, are important improvements to the climate model. According to the new model, the water-loss (inner HZ) and maximum greenhouse (outer HZ) limits for our solar system are at 0.99 and 1.70 AU, respectively, suggesting that the present Earth lies near the inner edge. Additional calculations are performed for stars with effective temperatures between 2600 and 7200 K, and the results are presented in parametric form, making them easy to apply to actual stars. The new model indicates that, near the inner edge of the HZ, there is no clear distinction between runaway greenhouse and water-loss limits for stars with T eff ≲ 5000 K, which has implications for ongoing planet searches around K and M stars. To assess the potential habitability of extrasolar terrestrial planets, we propose using stellar flux incident on a planet rather than equilibrium temperature. This removes the dependence on planetary (Bond) albedo, which varies depending on the host star's spectral type. We suggest that conservative estimates of the HZ (water-loss and maximum greenhouse limits) should be used for current RV surveys and Kepler mission to obtain a lower limit on η ⊕ , so that future flagship missions like TPF-C and Darwin are not undersized. Our model does not include the radiative effects of clouds; thus, the actual HZ boundaries may extend further in both directions than the estimates just given.
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“The new Kopparapu et al. (2013) habitable zone model recalculates the classic Kasting et al. (1993) habitable zone with updated model inputs, and its habitable zone extends from 0.99 to 1.70 AU.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“However, this study did not include the effects of clouds or circulation of moisture, either of which could stabilize a planet at the inner edge of the habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“In this updated conservative estimation, Earth is very near the inner edge of the current habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“The location of the habitable zone depends on how bright the star is (Kopparapu et al., 2013); for brighter stars, the habitable zone is shifted outward because planets must be farther away from these stars to maintain temperatures necessary for liquid water, and for dimmer stars, the habitable zone is shifted inward (Fig. 18).”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al., 2013
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Cites
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“As with the inner edge model, a more optimistic empirical limit on the OHZ can be estimated based on the observation that early Mars was warm enough for liquid water to flow on its surface (Pollack et al. 1987; Bibring et al. 2006).”
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A Habitable-zone Earth-sized Planet Rescued from False Positive Status
Vanderburg, A. M., Rowden, P., Bryson, S., Coughlin, J. L., Batalha, N. M., Collins, K. A., Latham, D. W., Mullally, S. E., Colón, K. D., Henze, C., et al. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab84e5 · Cited by 26
“Kepler-1649c is an Earth-sized planet orbiting within its host star’s habitable zone (as calculated by Kopparapu et al. 2013, under conservative assumptions).”
BackgroundHabitability and Water Loss Limits on Eccentric Planets Orbiting Main-sequence Stars
Palubski, I., Shields, A. L., & Deitrick, R. (2020) · doi:10.48350/154813 · Cited by 26
Evryscope and K2 Constraints on TRAPPIST-1 Superflare Occurrence and Planetary Habitability
Glazier, A., Howard, W. S., Corbett, H., Law, N. M., Ratzloff, J. K., Fors Aldrich, O., & Ser Badia, D. D. (2020) · Dipòsit Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona (Universitat de Barcelona) · Cited by 26
Ramsay, G., Kolotkov, D. Y., Doyle, J. G., & Doyle, L. (2021) · Solar Physics · doi:10.1007/s11207-021-01899-x · Cited by 29
Mancini, L., Lillo-Box, J., Southworth, J., Borsato, L., Gandolfi, D., Ciceri, S., Barrado, D., Brahm, R., & Henning, T. K. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201526357 · Cited by 26
“Orbiting at ∼ 0.5 au from its host, Kepler-539 b is located not so far (≈ 0.45 au) from its habitable zone (HZ), which has a width of ∼ 0.72 au, as we estimated it based on the stellar parameters reported in Table 3 and the HZ calculator by Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014).”
MethodInfluentialRed-edge position of habitable exoplanets around M-dwarfs
Takizawa, K., Minagawa, J., Tamura, M., Kusakabe, N., & Narita, N. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-07948-5 · Cited by 26
Abrupt climate transition of icy worlds from snowball to moist or runaway greenhouse
Yang, J., Ding, F., Ramirez, R. M., Peltier, W. R., Hu, Y., & Liu, Y. (2017) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo2994 · Cited by 26
Self-citationSimulating Radio Emission from Low-mass Stars
Llama, J., Jardine, M., Wood, K., Hallinan, G., & Morin, J. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaa59f · Cited by 27
“Due to their lower mass (0.1–0.6 M ), these stars are less luminous than solar type stars, which in turn means the habitable zone is located much nearer to the star at a distance of ∼0.1–0.4 au (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialGuendelman, I., & Kaspi, Y. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab2a06 · Cited by 27
Kuwahara, H., & Sugita, S. (2015) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.05.007 · Cited by 27
Young, P., Desch, S., Anbar, A., Barnes, R., Hinkel, N., Kopparapu, R., Madhusudhan, N., Monga, N., Pagano, M., Riner, M., et al. (2014) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2014.1143 · Cited by 17
“1 £ Mp £ 10 MEarth) with favorable atmospheric conditions can sustain liquid water on its surface (Huang, 1959; Hart, 1978; Kasting et al., 1993; Selsis et al., 2007; Kopparapu et al., 2013).”
InfluentialSelf-citationLeger, A. M., Defrère, D., Malbet, F., Labadie, L., & Absil, O. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/194 · Cited by 24
“Many recent works in astronomy, e.g., Kopparapu et al. (2013), rely on 1D, therefore cloud-free, models.”
BackgroundA direct comparison of exoEarth yields for starshades and coronagraphs
Stark, C. C., Cady, E., Clampin, M., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Lisman, D., Mandell, A. M., McElwain, M. W., Roberge, A., Robinson, T. D., Savransky, D., et al. (2016) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.2233201 · Cited by 25
Self-citationDynamics and habitability in circumstellar planetary systems of known binary stars
Bazsó, Á., Pilat-Lohinger, E., Eggl, S., Funk, B., Bancelin, D., & Rau, G. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw3095 · Cited by 17
“The classical habitable zone was defined for a single Earthlike planet on an almost circular orbit around a single star (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodPossible Atmospheric Diversity of Low Mass Exoplanets – Some Central Aspects
Grenfell, J. L., Leconte, J., Forget, F., Godolt, M., Carrión-González, Ó., Noack, L., Tian, F., Rauer, H., Gaillard, F., Bolmont, É., et al. (2020) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-020-00716-4 · Cited by 27
“Earlier works e.g. Kopparapu et al. (2013) noted the importance of employing detailed, up-to-date line-lists for water when determining the inner HZ.”
BackgroundWaterworlds May Have Better Climate Buffering Capacities than Their Continental Counterparts
Hayworth, B., & Foley, B. J. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abb882 · Cited by 24
3D Simulations of the Early Martian Hydrological Cycle Mediated by a H 2 ‐CO 2 Greenhouse
Guzewich, S. D., Way, M. J., Aleinov, I., Wolf, E. T., C, A. D. D. G., Wordsworth, R., & Tsigaridis, K. (2021) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2021je006825 · Cited by 28
The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Amado, P. J., Bauer, F. F., López, C., Rodríguez, E., Guillén, C. C., Perger, M., Caballero, J. A., López‐González, M. J., Rodríguez, I. M., Pozuelos, F. J., et al. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140633 · Cited by 25
ExoPlaSim: Extending the Planet Simulator for exoplanets
Paradise, A., Macdonald, E. J. R., Kristen Menou, A., Lee, C., & Fan, B. L. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac172 · Cited by 24
Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE)
Hansen, J. T., & Ireland, M. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243107 · Cited by 25
Planetary system around LTT 1445A unveiled by ESPRESSO: Multiple planets in a triple M-dwarf system
Lavie, B., Bouchy, F., Lovis, C., Osorio, M. R. Z., Deline, A., Barros, S. C. C., Figueira, P., Sozzetti, A., Hernández, J. I. G., Lillo-Box, J., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202143007 · Cited by 25
The ultraviolet habitable zone of exoplanets
Spinelli, R., Borsa, F., Ghirlanda, G., Ghisellini, G., & Haardt, F. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad928 · Cited by 28
Schlecker, M., Apai, D., Lichtenberg, T., Bergsten, G. J., Salvador, A., & Hardegree-Ullman, K. K. (2024) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/acf57f · Cited by 25
Baseline requirements for detecting biosignatures with the HabEx and LUVOIR mission concepts
Wang, J., Mawet, D. P., Hu, R., Ruane, G., Delorme, J.-R. R., & Klimovich, N. S. (2018) · Journal of Astronomical Telescopes Instruments and Systems · doi:10.1117/1.jatis.4.3.035001 · Cited by 25
Relative stellar occurrence of exoplanets in habitable zones of the main sequence F, G, K stars
Pintr, P., Peřinová, V., Lukš, A., & Pathak, A. (2014) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2014.06.001 · Cited by 24
Elser, S., Grimm, S. L., & Stadel, J. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt883 · Cited by 24
“This results from the fact that we use slightly different stellar parameters and a newer estimation of the HZ (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPanspermia in a Milky Way–like Galaxy
Gobat, R., Hong, S. E., Snaith, O. N., & Hong, S. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac2829 · Cited by 24
JWST-TST DREAMS: Secondary Atmosphere Constraints for the Habitable Zone Planet TRAPPIST-1 e
Glidden, A., Ranjan, S., Seager, S., Espinoza, N., MacDonald, R. J., Allen, N. H., Cañas, C. I., Grant, D., Gressier, A., Stevenson, K. B., et al. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adf62e · Cited by 39
Atmospheric dynamics and habitability range in Earth-like aquaplanets obliquity simulations
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Mello, F. D. S., & Friaça, A. C. S. (2019) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550419000120 · Cited by 25
Lithologic Controls on Silicate Weathering Regimes of Temperate Planets
Hakim, K., Bower, D. J., Tian, M., Deitrick, R., Auclair-Desrotour, P., Kitzmann, D., Dorn, C., Mezger, K., & Heng, K. (2021) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/abe1b8 · Cited by 25
“Greenhouse gases such as CO2 are essential in raising Earthʼs surface temperature (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe fundamental connections between the Solar System and exoplanetary science
Kane, S. R., Arney, G., Byrne, P. K., Dalba, P. A., Desch, S. J., Horner, J., Izenberg, N. R., Mandt, K. E., Meadows, V., & Quick, L. C. (2021) · University of Southern Queensland ePrints (University of Southern Queensland) · Cited by 26
Self-citationEfficiency of the oxygenic photosynthesis on Earth-like planets in the habitable zone
Covone, G., Ienco, R. M., Cacciapuoti, L., & Inno, L. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1357 · Cited by 26
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Lillo-Box, J., Santos, N. C., Santerne, A., Silva, A. M., Barrado, D., Faria, J. P., Castro-González, A., Balsalobre-Ruza, O., Morales‐Calderón, M., Saavedra, A., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243898 · Cited by 24
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“For example, studies of our own solar system (Kopparapu et al., 2013) show that the Earth’s orbit is now located just beyond the inner edge of the solar system’s HZ (0.99 AU).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe effect of planetary illumination on climate modelling of Earth-like exomoons
Forgan, D. H., & Yotov, V. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu740 · Cited by 24
“…inner edge of the HZ will generally suffer water loss by photolysis and hydrogen escape after a runaway greenhouse effect;planets beyond the outer edge of the HZ experience runaway glaciation asCO2 clouds form (see e.g. Kasting, Whitmire & Reynolds 1993 and Kopparapu et al. 2013 for more detail).”
BackgroundWorlds without Moons: Exomoon Constraints for Compact Planetary Systems
Kane, S. R. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa6bf2 · Cited by 24
“The shaded regions show the extent of the HZ for TRAPPIST-1, where we used the TRAPPIST1 luminosity (0.000524 L⊙) and effective temperature (2559 K) provided by Gillon et al. (2017), along with the HZ boundary equations of Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014).”
MethodInfluentialCARMENES input catalogue of M dwarfs. I. Low-resolution spectroscopy with CAFOS
Alonso-Floriano, F. J., Morales, J. C., Caballero, J. A., Montes, D., Klutsch, A., Mundt, R., Cortés‐Contreras, M., Ribas, I., Reiners, A., Amado, P. J., et al. (2015) · DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1502.07580 · Cited by 23
Effect of the exoplanet magnetic field topology on its magnetospheric radio emission
Varela, J., Réville, V., Brun, A. S., Zarka, P., & Pantellini, F. G. E. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732091 · Cited by 23
Internal Structure and CO2 Reservoirs of Habitable Water Worlds
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Lehmer, O. R., Catling, D. C., Parenteau, M. N., Kiang, N. Y., & Hoehler, T. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences · doi:10.3389/fspas.2021.689441 · Cited by 23
“The HZ flux limits are normalized to the incident flux of the modern Earth (S⊕ 1360 W m−2) and taken from Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
BackgroundPotential long-term habitable conditions on planets with primordial H–He atmospheres
Lous, M. M., Helled, R., & Mordasini, C. (2022) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01699-8 · Cited by 26
The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Nagel, E., Czesla, S., Schmitt, J. H. M. M., Dreizler, S., Anglada-Escudé, G., Rodríguez, E., Ribas, I., Reiners, A., Quirrenbach, A., Amado, P. J., et al. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834569 · Cited by 23
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Lichtenberg, T., & Clement, M. S. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac9521 · Cited by 23
Shoji, D., & Kurita, K. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/789/1/3 · Cited by 19
“However, Kopparapu et al. (2013) calculate the “continuous” habitable zone in which planets are habitable for 5 Gyr.”
BackgroundFrom climate models to planetary habitability: temperature constraints for complex life
Silva, L., Vladilo, G., Schulte, P. M., Murante, G., & Provenzale, A. (2016) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550416000215 · Cited by 27
“More likely, an active tectonic can help to widen the HZ by adjustment of the CO2 level via the carbonate-silicate cycle (e.g. Kasting et al. 1993; Selsis et al. 2007; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBarnes, J. R., Jeffers, S. V., Anglada-Escudé, G., Haswell, C. A., Jones, H. R. A., Tuomi, M., Feng, F., Jenkins, J. S., & Petit, P. M. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw3170 · Cited by 23
“…are confident that a typical habitable zone planet, bounded by the runaway and maximum greenhouse conditions, with a = 0.042–0.082 au and Porb ∼ 9.1–24.5 d (Delfosse et al. 2000; Kopparapu et al. 2013a,b), could be detected orbiting an M6V analogue of Proxima Centauri (Anglada-Escudé et al. 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialStar Masses and Star-Planet Distances for Earth-like Habitability
Waltham, D. (2017) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2016.1518 · Cited by 19
TESS Habitable Zone Star Catalog
Kaltenegger, L., Pepper, J. A., Stassun, K. G., & Oelkers, R. J. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab0e8d · Cited by 23
Effects of Radius and Gravity on the Inner Edge of the Habitable Zone
Yang, H., Komacek, T. D., & Abbot, D. S. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab1d60 · Cited by 23
Nakayama, A., Kodama, T., Ikoma, M., & Abe, Y. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1812 · Cited by 23
“D radiativeconvective climate models, Atmos1, developed by Kasting and his collaborators (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Ramirez et al. 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Trifonov, T., Lee, M.-H., Kürster, M., Henning, T., Grishin, E., Stock, S., Tjoa, J., Caballero, J., Wong, K., Bauer, F., et al. (2020) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936987 · Cited by 4
“For the HZ estimate we made use of the Habitable Zone Calculator6, which relies on the work by Kopparapu et al. (2013), who provide HZ estimates around MS stars with effective temperatures in the range of 2600 K < Teff < 7200 K.”
MethodCARMENES input catalogue of M dwarfs
Cifuentes, C., Caballero, J. A., Gonzalez-Payo, J., Amado, P. J., Béjar, V. J. S., Burgasser, A. J., Cortés‐Contreras, M., Lodieu, N., Montes, D., Quirrenbach, A., et al. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452527 · Cited by 22
Strict Limits on Potential Secondary Atmospheres on the Temperate Rocky Exo-Earth TRAPPIST-1 d
Piaulet, C., Benneke, B., Turbet, M., Moore, K., Roy, P.-A., Lim, O., Doyon, R., Fauchez, T. J., Albert, L., Radica, M., et al. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adf207 · Cited by 42
A CATALOG OF STELLAR EVOLUTION PROFILES AND THE EFFECTS OF VARIABLE COMPOSITION ON HABITABLE SYSTEMS
Truitt, A., Young, P. A., Spacek, A., Probst, L., & Dietrich, J. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/804/2/145 · Cited by 21
“For these estimates we follow the prescriptions of Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014), which follow from Selsis et al. (2007) and Kasting et al. (1993).”
BackgroundMethodCloutier, R., Doyon, R., Kristen Menou, A., Delfosse, X., Dumusque, X., & Artigau, É. (2016) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/153/1/9 · Cited by 22
“As discussed in the introduction, this single planetary system should host additional planets not seen in transit which could potentially exist within the star’s habitable zone between ≈ 15 − 39 days (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodRushby, A., Shields, A. L., & Joshi, M. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab4da6 · Cited by 22
Stefánsson, G., Kopparapu, R., Lin, A. S. J., Mahadevan, S., Cañas, C. I., Kanodia, S., Ninan, J. P., Cochran, W. D., Endl, M., Hebb, L., et al. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abbe19 · Cited by 22
“42 0.22 0.23 , both planets reside in the exoplanet “Venus zone”—the region between the runaway greenhouse boundary defined by Kopparapu et al. (2013) and 25 S⊕ (Kane et al. 2014; Ostberg & Kane 2019)—where the outer planet has an insolation flux similar to that of Venus of 1.91 S⊕.”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citationTerrien, R. C., Ninan, J. P., Diddams, S. A., Mahadevan, S., Halverson, S., Bender, C. F., Fredrick, C. D., Hearty, F., Jennings, J., Metcalf, A. J., et al. (2021) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abef68 · Cited by 22
Self-citationHow to Directly Image a Habitable Planet Around Alpha Centauri with a 30-45 cm Space Telescope
Thomas, S. J., Males, J. R., Bendek, E. A., & Belikov, R. (2015) · NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) · Cited by 22
Heller, R., Hippke, M., & Rodenbeck, K. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935600 · Cited by 22
Lightning-induced chemistry on tidally-locked Earth-like exoplanets
Braam, M., Palmer, P. I., Decin, L., Ridgway, R. J., Zamyatina, M., Mayne, N. J., Sergeev, D. E., & Abraham, N. L. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2722 · Cited by 22
Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE)
Konrad, B. S., Alei, E., Quanz, S. P., Mollière, P., Angerhausen, D., Fortney, J. J., Hakim, K., Jordan, S., Kitzmann, D., Rugheimer, S., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245655 · Cited by 22
Two super-Earths at the edge of the habitable zone of the nearby M dwarf TOI-2095
Murgas, F., Castro-González, A., Πάλλη, Ε., Pozuelos, F. J., Millholland, S., Foo, O., Korth, J., Marfil, E., Amado, P. J., Caballero, J. A., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346692 · Cited by 22
von Paris, P., Petau, A., Grenfell, J. L., Hauber, E., Breuer, D., Ralf Jaumann, E., Rauer, H., & Tirsch, D. (2014) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2014.11.018 · Cited by 20
“f up to 7K was observed upon increasing the number of levels in the troposphere where the opacity is largest. This effect is comparable to other 1D radiative-convective models (e.g., Tian et al. 2010, Kopparapu et al. 2013). For atmospheres with less CO2 partial pressure, the vertical discretization is not important fo…”
BackgroundMethodCircumbinary habitability niches
Mason, P., Zuluaga, J. I., Cuartas-Restrepo, P. A., & Clark, J. M. (2014) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550414000342 · Cited by 22
“The standard approach is to use the models of Kasting et al. (1993), updated by Kopparapu et al. (2013) and derived for single stars, along with various methods for dealing, most often approximately, with the spectral characteristics of the stars.”
MethodQuantitative estimates of the surface habitability of Kepler-452b
Silva, L., Vladilo, G., Murante, G., & Provenzale, A. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1396 · Cited by 26
“…a preliminary identification can be obtained by searching for terrestrial-type exoplanets lying in the habitable zone (HZ; Kasting 1988; Kasting, Whitmire & Reynolds E-mail: silva@oats.inaf.it 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014) of late-type stars for a large fraction of the stellar lifetime.”
BackgroundSPECULOOS exoplanet search and its prototype on TRAPPIST
Burdanov, A., Delrez, L., Gillon, M., & Jehin, E. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_130 · Cited by 36
“Furthermore, the need for continuous observation is driven by the expected short transit duration (down to 15 min) for planets orbiting at the inner edge of the habitable zone of UCDs (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
InfluentialGiant Planets: Good Neighbors for Habitable Worlds?
Georgakarakos, N., Eggl, S., & Dobbs‐Dixon, I. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaaf72 · Cited by 22
Quantifying the Influence of Jupiter on the Earth’s Orbital Cycles
Horner, J., Vervoort, P., Kane, S. R., Ceja, A. Y., Waltham, D., Gilmore, J., & Turner, S. K. (2019) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab5365 · Cited by 22
The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Baroch, D., Morales, J. C., Ribas, I., Béjar, V. J. S., Reffert, S., Guillén, C. C., Reiners, A., Caballero, J. A., Quirrenbach, A., Amado, P. J., et al. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141031 · Cited by 22
Geology, Life, and Habitability
Southam, G., Westall, F., & Spohn, T. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-53802-4.00175-5 · Cited by 21
Direct imaging of exoplanets in the habitable zone with adaptive optics
Males, J. R., Close, L. M., Guyon, O., Morzinski, K. M., Puglisi, A. T., Hinz, P. M., Follette, K. B., Monnier, J. D., Tolls, V., Rodigas, T. J., et al. (2014) · Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics · Cited by 22
Role of stellar physics in regulating the critical steps for life
Lingam, M., & Loeb, A. (2019) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550419000016 · Cited by 25
“The HZ is dependent on both planetary and stellar parameters, and evolves dynamically over time (Kasting et al. 1993; Kasting and Catling 2003; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
BackgroundDobos, V., Orgoványi, J., & Nagy, I. (2013) · Astronomische Nachrichten · doi:10.1002/asna.201211981 · Cited by 21
An Overview of Exoplanet Biosignatures
Schwieterman, E. W., & Leung, M. (2024) · Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry · doi:10.2138/rmg.2024.90.13 · Cited by 36
Considerations for Photochemical Modeling of Possible Hycean Worlds
Cooke, G. J., & Madhusudhan, N. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad8cda · Cited by 30
Inner edge of the habitable zone
Kasting, J. F., & Harman, C. E. (2013) · Nature · doi:10.1038/504221a · Cited by 21
Self-citationBioverse: A Simulation Framework to Assess the Statistical Power of Future Biosignature Surveys
Bixel, A., & Apai, D. (2021) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abe042 · Cited by 21
Assessing the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite’s Yield of Rocky Planets Around Nearby M Dwarfs
Brady, M., & Bean, J. L. (2022) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ac64a0 · Cited by 21
Radio masers on WX UMa: hints of a Neptune-sized planet, or magnetospheric reconnection?
Kavanagh, R. D., Vidotto, A. A., Vedantham, H. K., Jardine, M., Callingham, J. R., & Morin, J. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1264 · Cited by 21
Sensitive Multibeam Targeted SETI Observations toward 33 Exoplanet Systems with FAST
Tao, Z.-Z., Zhao, H., Zhang, T.-J., Gajjar, V., Zhu, Y., Zhu, Y., You-ling, Y., Zhang, H.-Y., Li, S.-Y., Li, S.-Y., et al. (2022) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ac8bd5 · Cited by 25
Estimating the number of planets that PLATO can detect
Matuszewski, F., Nettelmann, N., Cabrera, J., Börner, A., & Rauer, H. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245287 · Cited by 21
Latouf, N., Mandell, A. M., Villanueva, G. L., Moore, M. D., Susemiehl, N., Kofman, V., & Himes, M. D. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acebc3 · Cited by 21
Interior Controls on the Habitability of Rocky Planets
Gillmann, C., Hakim, K., Lourenço, D. L., Quanz, S. P., & Sossi, P. A. (2023) · Space Science & Technology · doi:10.34133/space.0075 · Cited by 26
“Its outer boundary is set where the maximum greenhouse can no longer sustain temperatures high enough for liquid water [15].”
BackgroundInfluentialEccentricity Distribution beyond the Snow Line and Implications for Planetary Habitability
Kane, S. R., & Wittenmyer, R. A. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad2463 · Cited by 25
Exomoon climate models with the carbonate-silicate cycle and viscoelastic tidal heating
Forgan, D. H., & Dobos, V. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw024 · Cited by 21
“…data allow the construction of habitable zones that depend only on the host star’s luminosity and effective temperature, with the other parameters assumed to be Earth-like (Kopparapu et al. 2013 although some recent work by Kopparapu et al. 2014 has extended this to more and less massive planets).”
BackgroundInfluentialEvolution of galaxy habitability
Gobat, R. A. S., & Hong, S. E. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201628834 · Cited by 21
“Kopparapu et al. (2013) define the HZ for e ff ective temperatures between 2600 and 7200 K, corresponding to a mass interval of ∼ 0.1 − 1.5 M (cid:12) .”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialProspects of detecting the polarimetric signature of the Earth-mass planet alpha Centauri B b with S
Milli, J., Bazzon, A., Mouillet, D., Schmid, H., Girard, J. H., Roelfsema, R., Mawet, D., & Dohlen, K. (2013) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321881 · Cited by 11
“A runaway greenhouse is indeed possible for an ocean planet atth orbit of Venus (Kopparapu et al. 2013), andα Cen B b receives an insulation as strong as 193 times that received by Venus.”
BackgroundBixel, A., & Apai, D. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab8fad · Cited by 24
“We use these terms interchangeably to refer to planets which are comparable in size to Earth and have orbits within the liquid water habitable zone, and which therefore could sustain habitable surface conditions (e.g., Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
MethodEffect of the exoplanet magnetic field topology on its magnetospheric radio emission
Varela, J., Réville, V., Brun, A. S., Zarka, P., & Pantellini, F. G. E. (2018) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732091/pdf · Cited by 21
Brown Dwarf Atmospheres as the Potentially Most Detectable and Abundant Sites for Life
Lingam, M., & Loeb, A. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab3f35 · Cited by 23
The Dawes Review 3: The Atmospheres of Extrasolar Planets and Brown DwarfsPreprint
Bailey, J. (2016) · Cited by 26
A first look at rocky exoplanets with JWST
Kreidberg, L., & Stevenson, K. B. (2025) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2416190122 · Cited by 20
“In addition, Earth-like atmospheres can also have low Bond albedos, though they would show signatures of atmospheric heat redistribution and molecular features that have not been seen in the data (46, 98, 99).”
RAPID WATER LOSS CAN EXTEND THE LIFETIME OF PLANETARY HABITABILITY
Kodama, T., Genda, H., Abe, Y., & Zahnle, K. J. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/812/2/165 · Cited by 20
“We estimated how much water escapes during the period from the onset of the moist greenhouse effect to the onset of the runaway greenhouse effect using the results from Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialON THE ORBITAL INCLINATION OF PROXIMA CENTAURI b
Kane, S. R., Gelino, D., & Turnbull, M. (2017) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/153/2/52 · Cited by 20
“To calculate the HZ, we use the stellar parameters of Anglada-Escudé et al. (2016) and the methodology of Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014).”
MethodTransit Visibility Zones of the Solar System Planets
Wells, R., Poppenhaeger, K., Watson, C., & Heller, R. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2077 · Cited by 15
“It largely depends on the stellar flux received and surface atmospheric pressure, along with other planetary and stellar parameters (Kasting, Whitmire & Reynolds 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundSánchez, M. Á. M., de Elía, G. C., & Darriba, L. A. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2292 · Cited by 20
“In the present work, we use the HZ definition given by Kopparapu et al. (2013a), Kopparapu et al. (2013b) and Kopparapu et al. (2014).”
MethodClimate sensitivity to ozone and its relevance on the habitability of Earth-like planets
Gómez-Leal, I., Kaltenegger, L., Lucarini, V., & Lunkeit, F. (2018) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2018.11.019 · Cited by 19
Metadata
- Authors
- Kopparapu, R. K., Ramirez, R., Kasting, J. F., Eymet, V., Robinson, T. D., Mahadevan, S., Terrien, R. C., Domagal-Goldman, S., Meadows, V., & Deshpande, R.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Bordeaux (FR)
- NASA Astrobiology Institute (US)
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2013-02-26
- Volume
- 765
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 131
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2047751764
- Cited by
- 1,615
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2026: 89 · 2025: 115 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 125 · 2022: 110 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 157 · 2019: 177 · 2018: 149 · 2017: 109 · 2016: 115 · 2015: 83 · 2014: 95 · 2013: 55
- FWCI
- 61.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Oskar-Bordeaux (Universite de Bordeaux) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1126413, 1006676)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NNH05ZDA001C)
- Pennsylvania Space Grant Consortium
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities
- University of Pennsylvania
- University of Washington
- Pennsylvania State University
- NASA Astrobiology Institute
- NASA Headquarters
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Space Science and Extraterrestrial Life
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Space and Planetary Science › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Keywords
- habitable zone, main-sequence stars, terrestrial exoplanets, water loss, runaway greenhouse, stellar effective temperature, stellar flux, M dwarfs, K stars, F and G stars
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