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HABITABLE ZONES AROUND MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS: NEW ESTIMATES
Open accessAbstract
Identifying terrestrial planets in the habitable zones (HZs) of other stars is one of the primary goals of ongoing radial velocity (RV) and transit exoplanet surveys and proposed future space missions. Most current estimates of the boundaries of the HZ are based on one-dimensional (1D), cloud-free, climate model calculations by Kasting et al. However, this model used band models that were based on older HITRAN and HITEMP line-by-line databases. The inner edge of the HZ in the Kasting et al. model was determined by loss of water, and the outer edge was determined by the maximum greenhouse provided by a CO 2 atmosphere. A conservative estimate for the width of the HZ from this model in our solar system is 0.95–1.67 AU. Here an updated 1D radiative–convective, cloud-free climate model is used to obtain new estimates for HZ widths around F, G, K, and M stars. New H 2 O and CO 2 absorption coefficients, derived from the HITRAN 2008 and HITEMP 2010 line-by-line databases, are important improvements to the climate model. According to the new model, the water-loss (inner HZ) and maximum greenhouse (outer HZ) limits for our solar system are at 0.99 and 1.70 AU, respectively, suggesting that the present Earth lies near the inner edge. Additional calculations are performed for stars with effective temperatures between 2600 and 7200 K, and the results are presented in parametric form, making them easy to apply to actual stars. The new model indicates that, near the inner edge of the HZ, there is no clear distinction between runaway greenhouse and water-loss limits for stars with T eff ≲ 5000 K, which has implications for ongoing planet searches around K and M stars. To assess the potential habitability of extrasolar terrestrial planets, we propose using stellar flux incident on a planet rather than equilibrium temperature. This removes the dependence on planetary (Bond) albedo, which varies depending on the host star's spectral type. We suggest that conservative estimates of the HZ (water-loss and maximum greenhouse limits) should be used for current RV surveys and Kepler mission to obtain a lower limit on η ⊕ , so that future flagship missions like TPF-C and Darwin are not undersized. Our model does not include the radiative effects of clouds; thus, the actual HZ boundaries may extend further in both directions than the estimates just given.
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“The new Kopparapu et al. (2013) habitable zone model recalculates the classic Kasting et al. (1993) habitable zone with updated model inputs, and its habitable zone extends from 0.99 to 1.70 AU.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“However, this study did not include the effects of clouds or circulation of moisture, either of which could stabilize a planet at the inner edge of the habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“In this updated conservative estimation, Earth is very near the inner edge of the current habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“The location of the habitable zone depends on how bright the star is (Kopparapu et al., 2013); for brighter stars, the habitable zone is shifted outward because planets must be farther away from these stars to maintain temperatures necessary for liquid water, and for dimmer stars, the habitable zone is shifted inward (Fig. 18).”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al., 2013
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Cites
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Seven temperate terrestrial planets around the nearby ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1
Gillon, M., Triaud, A. H. M. J., Demory, B.-O., Jehin, E., Agol, E., Deck, K. M., Lederer, S. M., de Wit, J., Burdanov, A., Ingalls, J. G., et al. (2017) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature21360 · Cited by 1,555
A terrestrial planet candidate in a temperate orbit around Proxima Centauri
Anglada-Escudé, G., Amado, P. J., Barnes, J. R., Berdiñas, Z. M., Butler, R. P., Coleman, G. A. L., de la Cueva, I., Dreizler, S., Endl, M., Giesers, B., et al. (2016) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature19106 · Cited by 1,293
Dressing, C. D., & Charbonneau, D. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/807/1/45 · Cited by 1,058
“In the most conservative case, we adopt the maximum greenhouse (Max GH) and moist greenhouse (Moist GH) insolation limits from Kopparapu et al. (2013b).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWide-Field InfrarRed Survey Telescope-Astrophysics Focused Telescope Assets WFIRST-AFTA 2015 ReportPreprint
Spergel, D. N., Gehrels, N. A., Baltay, C., Bennett, D. P., Breckinridge, J. B., Donahue, M. E., Dressler, A. M., Gaudi, B. S., Greene, T. P., Guyon, O., et al. (2015) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1503.03757 · Cited by 942
Prevalence of Earth-size planets orbiting Sun-like stars
Petigura, E. A., Howard, A. W., & Marcy, G. W. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1319909110 · Cited by 850
“Pierrehumbert and Gaidos (18) estimated that the outer edge of the HZ may extend up to 10 AU for planets that are kept warm by efficient greenhouse warming with an H2 atmosphere.”
BackgroundInfluentialMann, A. W., Feiden, G. A., Gaidos, E. J., Boyajian, T. S., & von Braun, K. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/804/1/64 · Cited by 717
“Among other applications, this information is required to determine if a planet falls within a “habitable zone” bounded by runaway greenhouse conditions and the maximum greenhouse effect that a CO2 atmosphere can provide (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundHABITABLE ZONES AROUND MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS: DEPENDENCE ON PLANETARY MASS
Kopparapu, R., Ramirez, R. M., Schottelkotte, J. C., Kasting, J. F., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., & Eymet, V. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/787/2/l29 · Cited by 659
“This replaces the “moist-greenhouse limit” where the stratosphere becomes wet, which defined the HZ inner edge in Kasting et al. (1993) and Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationTemperate Earth-sized planets transiting a nearby ultracool dwarf star
Gillon, M., Jehin, E., Lederer, S. M., Delrez, L., de Wit, J., Burdanov, A., Grootel, V. V., Burgasser, A. J., Triaud, A. H. M. J., Opitom, C., et al. (2016) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature17448 · Cited by 620
Kempton, E. M.-R., Bean, J. L., Louie, D. R., Deming, D., Koll, D. D. B., Mansfield, M., Christiansen, J. L., López‐Morales, M., Swain, M. R., Zellem, R. T., et al. (2018) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/aadf6f · Cited by 592
Extreme Water Loss and Abiotic O 2 Buildup on Planets Throughout the Habitable Zones of M Dwarfs
Luger, R., & Barnes, R. (2015) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2014.1231 · Cited by 585
“The HZ is the region around a star where liquid water may exist on the surface of a terrestrial planet ( e.g. , Kasting et al. , 1993; Kopparapu et al. , 2013).”
InfluentialSullivan, P. W., Winn, J. N., Berta-Thompson, Z. K., Charbonneau, D., Deming, D., Dressing, C. D., Latham, D. W., Levine, A. M., McCullough, P. R., Morton, T. D., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/809/1/77 · Cited by 555
“We also expect a smaller subset of 14±4 to be within the more restricted zone defined by Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
BackgroundTanaka, K. L., Skinner, J. A., Dohm, J. M., Irwin, R. P., Kolb, E. J., Fortezzo, C. M., Platz, T., Michael, G., & Hare, T. M. (2014) · Scientific investigations map · doi:10.3133/sim3292 · Cited by 540
Exoplanet Biosignatures: A Review of Remotely Detectable Signs of Life
Schwieterman, E. W., Kiang, N. Y., Parenteau, M. N., Harman, C. E., DasSarma, S., Fisher, T. M., Arney, G. N., Hartnett, H. E., Reinhard, C. T., Olson, S. L., et al. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1729 · Cited by 630
“face. There may be a wide variety of atmospheric compositions that can achieve this result, including N 2,- CO 2,- and H 2-dominated atmospheres (Kasting et al., 1993; Pierrehumbert and Gaidos, 2011; Kopparapu et al., 2013; Seager, 2013; Ramirez and Kaltenegger, 2017). Evaluation of potential habitability is assisted…”
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“…potentially habitable planets, Table 3 lists the properties of 9 CANDIDATE KOIs newly validated by this work that may fall within the optimistic habitable zones of their host stars (Kopparapu et al. 2013), according to the stellar properties reported by the DR24 table at the NExScI Archive.”
BackgroundAstrophysics of Planet Formation
Armitage, P. J. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108344227 · Cited by 535
Exoplanet Biosignatures: A Review of Remotely Detectable Signs of Life
Schwieterman, E. W., Kiang, N. Y.-L., Parenteau, M. N., Harman, C. E., DasSarma, S., Fisher, T. M., Arney, G., Hartnett, H. E., Reinhard, C. T., Olson, S. L., et al. (2017) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 452
Self-citationThompson, S. E., Coughlin, J. L., Hoffman, K., Mullally, F. R., Christiansen, J. L., Burke, C. J., Bryson, S., Batalha, N. M., Haas, M. R., Catanzarite, J., et al. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aab4f9 · Cited by 458
“We use the empirical (recent Venus/early Mars) habitable zone of Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
MethodEmergence of two types of terrestrial planet on solidification of magma ocean
Hamano, K., Abe, Y., & Genda, H. (2013) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature12163 · Cited by 402
Cockell, C. S., Bush, T., Bryce, C. C., Direito, S. O. L., Fox‐Powell, M. G., Harrison, J. P., Lammer, H., Landenmark, H., Martín‐Torres, J., Nicholson, N., et al. (2016) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1295 · Cited by 429
STABILIZING CLOUD FEEDBACK DRAMATICALLY EXPANDS THE HABITABLE ZONE OF TIDALLY LOCKED PLANETS
Yang, J., Cowan, N. B., & Abbot, D. S. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/771/2/l45 · Cited by 392
“Previous investigations of the inner edge of the HZ have typically been based on 1D radiative-convective models that neglect cloud effects (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundA dynamically-packed planetary system around GJ 667C with three super-Earths in its habitable zone
Anglada-Escudé, G., Tuomi, M., Gerlach, E., Barnes, R., Heller, R., Jenkins, J. S., Wende, S., Vogt, S. S., Butler, R. P., Reiners, A., et al. (2013) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321331 · Cited by 380
“Traditionally, analyses of planetary habitability begin with determining if a planet is in the habitable zone (Dole 1964; Hart 1979; Kasting et al. 1993; Selsis et al. 2007; Kopparapu et al. 2013), but many factors are relevant.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA seven-planet resonant chain in TRAPPIST-1
Luger, R., Sestovic, M., Kruse, E., Grimm, S. L., Demory, B.-O., Agol, E., Bolmont, É., Fabrycky, D. C., Fernandes, C. S., Grootel, V. V., et al. (2017) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-017-0129 · Cited by 376
Constraining the climate and ocean pH of the early Earth with a geological carbon cycle model
Krissansen-Totton, J., Arney, G. N., & Catling, D. C. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1721296115 · Cited by 348
“We used a 1D radiative convective model (46) to create a grid of mean surface temperatures as a function of solar luminosity and pCO2.”
MethodTERRESTRIAL PLANET OCCURRENCE RATES FOR THE KEPLER GK DWARF SAMPLE
Burke, C. J., Christiansen, J. L., Mullally, F. R., Seader, S., Huber, D., Rowe, J. F., Coughlin, J. L., Thompson, S. E., Catanzarite, J., Clarke, B. D., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/809/1/8 · Cited by 356
“…occurrence rates in terms of Porb such as ζ, has advantages over providing occurrence rates in terms of stellar insolation flux, such as the Venus zone (η♀) concept of Kane et al. (2014) or the HZ (η⊕) concept (Kasting et al. 1993; Selsis et al. 2007; Zsom et al. 2013; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundA temperate rocky super-Earth transiting a nearby cool star
Dittmann, J., Irwin, J. M., Charbonneau, D., Bonfils, X., Astudillo-Defru, N., Haywood, R. D., Berta-Thompson, Z. K., Newton, E. R., Rodriguez, J. E., Winters, J. G., et al. (2017) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature22055 · Cited by 351
Stellar Flares from the First TESS Data Release: Exploring a New Sample of M Dwarfs
Günther, M. N., Zhan, Z., Seager, S., Rimmer, P. B., Ranjan, S., Stassun, K. G., Oelkers, R. J., Daylan, T., Newton, E. R., Kristiansen, M. H., et al. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab5d3a · Cited by 396
“…and migration history, tidal locking of the orbits, space weather, and other factors (see e.g. Huang 1959; Kasting et al. 1993; Pierrehumbert & Gaidos 2011; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Cullum et al. 2014; Kasting et al. 2014; Kopparapu et al. 2014; Ramirez & Kaltenegger 2014; Cullum & Stevens 2016).”
BackgroundThe nature of the TRAPPIST-1 exoplanets
Grimm, S. L., Demory, B.-O., Gillon, M., Dorn, C., Agol, E., Burdanov, A., Delrez, L., Sestovic, M., Triaud, A. H. M. J., Turbet, M., et al. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732233 · Cited by 358
“Planet b however, is located beyond the runaway greenhouse limit for tidally locked planets (Kopparapu et al. 2016; Turbet et al. 2017) and could potentially reach – with a thick water vapour atmosphere – a surface temperature up to 2000 K (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundThe Pale Orange Dot: The Spectrum and Habitability of Hazy Archean Earth
Arney, G., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Meadows, V. S., Wolf, E. T., Schwieterman, E., Charnay, B., Claire, M., Hébrard, E., & Trainer, M. G. (2016) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1422 · Cited by 327
“The version we use here is based directly on that used by Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
InfluentialSelf-citationAgol, E., Dorn, C., Grimm, S. L., Turbet, M., Ducrot, E., Delrez, L., Gillon, M., Demory, B.-O., Burdanov, A., Barkaoui, K., et al. (2021) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/abd022 · Cited by 331
“This stems from the fact that the inner three planets are more irradiated than the runaway greenhouse irradiation limit (Kopparapu et al. 2013; Wolf 2017; Turbet et al. 2018) for which all water is vaporized, forming a thick H2O-dominated steam atmosphere.”
BackgroundSelf-citationWas Venus the first habitable world of our solar system?
Way, M. J., C, A. D. D. G., Kiang, N. Y.-L., Sohl, L. E., Grinspoon, D. H., Aleinov, I., Kelley, M., & Clune, T. (2016) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1002/2016gl069790 · Cited by 342
“…et al., 2014] suggest that for warm rocky planets that retain significant water after formation, an extended period of habitability is possible well inside the traditionally defined inner edge of the habitable zone for cloud-free atmospheres [Kopparapu et al., 2013] if they rotate slowly enough.”
BackgroundIncreased insolation threshold for runaway greenhouse processes on Earth-like planets
Leconte, J., Forget, F., Charnay, B., Wordsworth, R., & Pottier, A. (2013) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature12827 · Cited by 330
Petigura, E. A., Howard, A. W., Marcy, G. W., Johnson, J. A., Isaacson, H. T., Cargile, P. A., Hebb, L., Fulton, B. J., Weiss, L. M., Morton, T. D., et al. (2017) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa80de · Cited by 322
“They selected stars for which the flux received by the planet fell (within 1σ) between the Venus and “early-Mars” habitable-zone boundaries (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundThe habitability of planets orbiting M-dwarf stars
Shields, A. L., Ballard, S., & Johnson, J. A. (2016) · Physics Reports · doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2016.10.003 · Cited by 398
“…of Rayleigh scattering then dominate over the greenhouse effect of increased CO2, and temperatures above the freezing point of water can no longer be maintained by increasing CO2 (Kasting et al., 1993; Underwood et al., 2003; Pierrehumbert, 2010; Kane & Gelino, 2012; Kopparapu et al., 2013a,b).”
BackgroundExoplanet Biosignatures: Understanding Oxygen as a Biosignature in the Context of Its Environment
Meadows, V., Reinhard, C. T., Arney, G., Parenteau, M. N., Schwieterman, E. W., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Lincowski, A., Stapelfeldt, K. R., Rauer, H., DasSarma, S., et al. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1727 · Cited by 341
Self-citationEylen, V. V., & Albrecht, S. H. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/126 · Cited by 303
“For moderately eccentric orbits the outer edge of the habitable zone is increased (Spiegel et al. 2010; Dressing et al. 2010; Kopparapu et al. 2013), i.e. moderately eccentric planets could be habitable further away from the host star than planets on circular planets.”
BackgroundWarming early Mars with CO2 and H2
Ramirez, R. M., Kopparapu, R., Zugger, M. E., Robinson, T. D., Freedman, R., & Kasting, J. F. (2014) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo2000 · Cited by 303
Self-citationA Revised Exoplanet Yield from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS)
Barclay, T., Pepper, J. A., & Quintana, E. V. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aae3e9 · Cited by 301
An Earth-Sized Planet in the Habitable Zone of a Cool Star
Quintana, E. V., Barclay, T., Raymond, S. N., Rowe, J. F., Bolmont, É., Caldwell, D. A., Howell, S. B., Kane, S. R., Huber, D., Crepp, J. R., et al. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1249403 · Cited by 292
Stellar activity masquerading as planets in the habitable zone of the M dwarf Gliese 581
Robertson, P. M., Mahadevan, S., Endl, M., & Roy, A. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1253253 · Cited by 285
Self-citationJin, S., & Mordasini, C. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa9f1e · Cited by 278
“Thanks to the progress of the radial velocity and transit techniques, we have furthermore started to detect Earth-size planets in the recent years, including several planets that are potentially in the habitable zone (see Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundObserving the Atmospheres of Known Temperate Earth-sized Planets with JWST
Morley, C., Kreidberg, L., Rustamkulov, Z., Robinson, T., & Fortney, J. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa927b · Cited by 244
“…to be illustrative of a broad range of atmospheres, not definitive estimates of liquid-water habitable zones, which have previously been published in many other relevant works (see, e.g., Kasting et al. 1993; Selsis et al. 2007; Wordsworth et al. 2011; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Shields et al. 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGaidos, E. J., Mann, A. W., Lépine, S., Buccino, A. P., James, D. J., Ansdell, M., Petrucci, R., Mauas, P. J. D., & Hilton, E. J. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1313 · Cited by 278
“We calculated the stellar irradiation in terrestrial units using S = L∗(P/365.24 d) −4/3M −2/3 ∗ and we ascertained whether planets orbit in the habitable zone described by the Teff - dependent “runaway” and maximum CO2 greenhouse limits on S proscribed in Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
MethodInfluentialThe habitability of Proxima Centauri b
Turbet, M., Leconte, J., Selsis, F., Bolmont, É., Forget, F., Ribas, I., Raymond, S. N., & Anglada-Escudé, G. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629577 · Cited by 284
“= 0.123 M ), defined as the range of orbital distances within which a planet can possibly maintain liquid water on its surface (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Leconte et al. 2013a; Yang et al. 2013; Kopparapu et al. 2014, 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialPredictions of the WFIRST Microlensing Survey. I. Bound Planet Detection Rates
Penny, M. T., Gaudi, B. S., Kerins, E. J., Rattenbury, N. J., Mao, S., Robin, A. C., & Novati, S. C. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aafb69 · Cited by 322
“An estimate of the occurrence rate of rocky planets in the habitable zones (e.g., Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013) of solar-like stars, η⊕, is an important ingredient for understanding the origins and evolution of life, and 4 the uniqueness of its development on Earth.”
BackgroundKopparapu, R. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/767/1/l8 · Cited by 273
“Here we use the Kopparapu et al. (2013) HZ limits to derive revised estimates of occurrence rates of potentially habitable planets around low-mass stars.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationStellar Flares from the First TESS Data Release: Exploring a New Sample of M Dwarfs
Günther, M. N., Zhan, Z., Seager, S., Rimmer, P. B., Ranjan, S., Stassun, K. G., Oelkers, R. J., Daylan, T., Newton, E. R., Kristiansen, M. H., et al. (2020) · Repository of the Academy's Library (Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) · Cited by 258
The habitability of planets orbiting M-dwarf stars
Shields, A. L., Ballard, S. A., & Johnson, J. A. (2016) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 256
Seager, S. (2013) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1232226 · Cited by 269
STRONG DEPENDENCE OF THE INNER EDGE OF THE HABITABLE ZONE ON PLANETARY ROTATION RATE
Yang, J., Boué, G., Fabrycky, D. C., & Abbot, D. S. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/787/1/l2 · Cited by 255
PLANETARY CANDIDATES OBSERVED BY KEPLER . VI. PLANET SAMPLE FROM Q1–Q16 (47 MONTHS)
Mullally, F., Coughlin, J. L., Thompson, S. E., Rowe, J., Burke, C., Latham, D. W., Batalha, N. M., Bryson, S. T., Christiansen, J., Henze, C. E., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/217/2/31 · Cited by 254
“Kopparapu et al. (2013) predict an inner edge to the HZ in the Solar System of Seff between 1.015 (for a conservative, cloud free model) and 1.77 (based on models of early Venus), corresponding to Teq between 255 and 294 K.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKepler-62: A Five-Planet System with Planets of 1.4 and 1.6 Earth Radii in the Habitable Zone
Borucki, W. J., Agol, E., Fressin, F., Kaltenegger, L., Rowe, J. F., Isaacson, H. T., Fischer, D. A., Batalha, N. M., Lissauer, J. J., Marcy, G. W., et al. (2013) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1234702 · Cited by 249
Johnstone, C. P., Bartel, M., & Güdel, M. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038407 · Cited by 250
Impact of space weather on climate and habitability of terrestrial-type exoplanets
Airapetian, V. S., Barnes, R., Cohen, O., Collinson, G. A., Danchi, W. C., Dong, C., C, A. D. D. G., France, K., Garcia-Sage, K., Glocer, A., et al. (2019) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550419000132 · Cited by 288
Self-citationThe Exoplanet Population Observation Simulator. I. The Inner Edges of Planetary Systems
Mulders, G. D., Pascucci, I., Apai, D., & Ciesla, F. J. (2018) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aac5ea · Cited by 245
“…the number of Earth-sized planets with Earth-like orbital periods (“habitable zone” planets), here defined as 0.9 P⊕<P<2.2 P⊕ and 0.7 R⊕<R<1.5 R⊕ based on the Kopparapu et al. (2013) conservative habitable zone for a Sun-like star that is representative of the most common star in the Keplersample.”
BackgroundInfluentialHow to Characterize Habitable Worlds and Signs of Life
Kaltenegger, L. (2017) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082214-122238 · Cited by 258
Bolmont, É., Selsis, F., Owen, J., Ribas, I., Raymond, S., Leconte, J., & Gillon, M. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2578 · Cited by 191
“Earth-like planets have been detected in the HZs (defined in Kasting, Whitmire, & Reynolds 1993; Selsis et al. 2007a; Kopparapu et al. 2013) of early type M-dwarfs (e.g., Quintana et al. 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTidal locking of habitable exoplanets
Barnes, R. (2017) · Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy · doi:10.1007/s10569-017-9783-7 · Cited by 235
Kopparapu, R., Wolf, E., Haqq-Misra, J., Yang, J., Kasting, J., Meadows, V., Terrien, R., & Mahadevan, S. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/819/1/84 · Cited by 162
“D models (Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationPLANETARY CANDIDATES OBSERVED BY KEPLER IV: PLANET SAMPLE FROM Q1-Q8 (22 MONTHS)
Burke, C. J., Bryson, S., Mullally, F. R., Rowe, J. F., Christiansen, J. L., Mullally, S. E., Coughlin, J. L., Haas, M. R., Batalha, N. M., Caldwell, D. A., et al. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/210/2/19 · Cited by 228
“Specifying the boundary of the HZ to support anthropocentrist life is an active area of research (Selsis et al. 2007; Kasting 2011; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Zsom et al. 2013).”
BackgroundExoplanet Biosignatures: A Framework for Their Assessment
Catling, D. C., Krissansen-Totton, J., Kiang, N. Y., Crisp, D., Robinson, T. D., DasSarma, S., Rushby, A. J., Del Genio, A., Bains, W., & Domagal-Goldman, S. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1737 · Cited by 225
“Indeed, the most common stars, M dwarfs, have a lower flux in the near-UV than the Sun, so that for the same biogenic CH4 flux as the Earth, the CH4 abundance reaches a higher and more detectable level depending upon the exact SED (Segura et al., 2005; Rugheimer et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationSPECTRO-THERMOMETRY OF M DWARFS AND THEIR CANDIDATE PLANETS: TOO HOT, TOO COOL, OR JUST RIGHT?
Mann, A. W., Gaidos, E. J., & Ansdell, M. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/779/2/188 · Cited by 222
“…2680 Woodlawn Drive, Honolulu, HI 96822 2 Harlan J. Smith Fellow, Department of Astronomy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA 3 Department of Geology & Geophysics, University of Hawai’i, 1680 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI 96822 star (Selsis et al. 2007; Kopparapu et al. 2013b).”
BackgroundMethodA combined transmission spectrum of the Earth-sized exoplanets TRAPPIST-1 b and c
de Wit, J., Wakeford, H. R., Gillon, M., Lewis, N. K., Valenti, J. A., Demory, B.-O., Burgasser, A. J., Burdanov, A., Delrez, L., Jehin, E., et al. (2016) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature18641 · Cited by 212
KEPLER Mission: development and overview
Borucki, W. J. (2016) · Reports on Progress in Physics · doi:10.1088/0034-4885/79/3/036901 · Cited by 222
The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS)
Burn, R., Schlecker, M., Mordasini, C., Emsenhuber, A., Alibert, Y., Henning, T. K., Klahr, H. H., & Benz, W. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140390 · Cited by 211
Assessing the Habitability of the TRAPPIST-1 System Using a 3D Climate Model
Wolf, E. T. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa693a · Cited by 172
“Thus, the Kopparapu et al. (2013) results may be overly generous with respect to the maximum CO2 greenhouse limit for the outer edge of the habitable zone.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAN ANCIENT EXTRASOLAR SYSTEM WITH FIVE SUB-EARTH-SIZE PLANETS
Campante, T. L., Barclay, T., Swift, J. J., Huber, D., Adibekyan, V., Cochran, W. D., Burke, C. J., Isaacson, H. T., Quintana, E. V., Davies, G. R., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/799/2/170 · Cited by 200
“These orbits are well interior to the inner edge of the system’s habitable zone, which lies 0.47 AU from the parent star if we consider the rather optimistic ‘Recent Venus’ limit of Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialLarge Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE)
Quanz, S. P., Ottiger, M., Fontanet, E., Kammerer, J., Menti, F., Dannert, F., Gheorghe, A., Absil, O., Airapetian, V., Alei, E., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140366 · Cited by 218
Self-citationAtmospheric escape from the TRAPPIST-1 planets and implications for habitability
Dong, C., Jin, M., Lingam, M., Airapetian, V., Ma, Y., & van der Holst, B. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1708010115 · Cited by 207
“One of the most important areas in this field is the hunt for Earth-sized terrestrial planets residing in the habitable zone (HZ) of their host stars—the HZ represents the region within which a planet can support liquid water on its surface (2); a probabilistic version of the HZ, encompassing a wide range of planetary…”
BackgroundKopparapu, R., Wolf, E. T., Arney, G., Batalha, N. E., Haqq-Misra, J. D., Grimm, S. L., & Heng, K. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa7cf9 · Cited by 213
“Our own previous work on HZs (Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014) using a 1D radiative-convective, cloud-free climate model, and updated with new and stronger H O2 absorption coefficients from HITRAN2008 and HITEMP2010 line-by-line (LBL) databases, showed that the inner edge of the HZ can be significantly…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationTHE RADIUS DISCREPANCY IN LOW-MASS STARS: SINGLE VERSUS BINARIES
Spada, F., Demarque, P., Kim, Y. C., & Sills, A. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/776/2/87 · Cited by 204
“Furthermore, M type stars (M ≤ 0.6M⊙) are the most abundant objects in the Galaxy, making up almost 75% in number of its stellar content, and are very promising candidates for fspada@aip.de the search of exoplanets located in the so-called habitable zone (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundAsynchronous rotation of Earth-mass planets in the habitable zone of lower-mass stars
Leconte, J., Wu, H., Kristen Menou, A., & Murray, N. (2015) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1258686 · Cited by 203
Modeling climate diversity, tidal dynamics and the fate of volatiles on TRAPPIST-1 planets
Turbet, M., Bolmont, É., Leconte, J., Forget, F., Selsis, F., Tobie, G., Caldas, A., Naar, J., & Gillon, M. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731620 · Cited by 211
“The two inner planets of the system (TRAPPIST-1b and c) are likely too hot to sustain global oceans of liquid water (Kopparapu et al. 2013; Yang et al. 2013; Kopparapu et al. 2016).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialShields, A. L., Meadows, V., Bitz, C. M., Pierrehumbert, R. T., Joshi, M., & Robinson, T. D. (2013) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2012.0961 · Cited by 197
“Also plotted here as vertical solid lines are the updated maximum CO 2 greenhouse limits for the F-dwarf (blue), G-dwarf (black), and M-dwarf (red) planets (Kopparapu et al. , 2013a, 2013b).”
InfluentialSelf-citationCARMENES input catalogue of M dwarfs
Alonso-Floriano, F. J., Morales, J. C., Caballero, J. A., Montes, D., Klutsch, A., Mundt, R., Cortés‐Contreras, M., Ribas, I., Reiners, A., Amado, P. J., et al. (2015) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201525803 · Cited by 197
They are small worlds after all: revised properties ofKeplerM dwarf stars and their planets
Gaidos, E. J., Mann, A. W., Kraus, A. L., & Ireland, M. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw097 · Cited by 198
“…2418.01, 2626.01, 3263.01, 3444.02, 4290.01, 4427.01, 4463.01, 5416.01, 7592.01) have values no more than 1σ above 90% of the terrestrial value (green hashed zone), a nominal runaway greenhouse limit for Earth-like planets orbiting M dwarfs (Kopparapu et al. 2013; Mann, Gaidos & Ansdell 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialKEPLER-413B: A SLIGHTLY MISALIGNED, NEPTUNE-SIZE TRANSITING CIRCUMBINARY PLANET
Kostov, V. B., McCullough, P. R., Carter, J. A., Deleuil, M., Díaz, R. F., Fabrycky, D. C., Hébrard, G., Hinse, T. C., Mazeh, T., Orosz, J. A., et al. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/784/1/14 · Cited by 195
“Following Kopparapu et al. (2013) cloud-free models, the inner edge of the habitable zone (“runaway greenhouse”) for the Kepler-413 system is at an incident stellar flux Sinner = 0.91 S?”
MethodInfluentialWATER LOSS FROM TERRESTRIAL PLANETS WITH CO2-RICH ATMOSPHERES
Wordsworth, R., & Pierrehumbert, R. T. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/778/2/154 · Cited by 191
“n in a runaway state. Indeed, our clear-sky calculations suggest Earth itself receives close to the limiting runaway ux at present, in agreement with the recent results of Goldblatt et al. (2013) and Kopparapu et al. (2013). When the Solar System formed, Venus received a solar ux ˘1:4 times that of Earth today, appare…”
InfluentialABIOTIC OZONE AND OXYGEN IN ATMOSPHERES SIMILAR TO PREBIOTIC EARTH
Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Segura, A., Claire, M. W., Robinson, T. D., & Meadows, V. S. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/792/2/90 · Cited by 198
“By definition, planets that are in the habitable zones of cooler stars absorb similar total amounts of energy as planets in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars (Kopparapu et al., 2013), but the wavelength distribution of that energy will be different.”
BackgroundSelf-citationWay, M. J., & C, A. D. D. G. (2020) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2019je006276 · Cited by 199
Rotation periods, variability properties and ages for Kepler exoplanet candidate host stars
Walkowicz, L. M., & Basri, G. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1700 · Cited by 183
“…whether said planets reside in the “habitable zone”, the range of distance from the star where the stellar insolation is similar to that of our Sun on Earth, such that liquid water could conceivably exist on the surface of a suitably terrestrial planet (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundSeager, S., Bains, W., & Petkowski, J. J. (2016) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1404 · Cited by 188
“Planets orbiting well interior (Abe et al. , 2011; Zsom et al. , 2013) or exterior (Pierrehumbert and Gaidos, 2011) to an Earth-like planet’s habitable zone boundaries (Kopparapu et al. , 2013) must be considered.”
A CATALOG OF KEPLER HABITABLE ZONE EXOPLANET CANDIDATES
Kane, S. R., Hill, M. L., Kasting, J. F., Kopparapu, R. K., Quintana, E. V., Barclay, T., Batalha, N. M., Borucki, W. J., Ciardi, D. R., Haghighipour, N., et al. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/830/1/1 · Cited by 187
“D habitability limits have been re-evaluated using updated absorption coefficients for CO2 and H2O (Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
MethodSelf-citationThe Occurrence of Rocky Habitable-zone Planets around Solar-like Stars from Kepler Data
Bryson, S., Kunimoto, M., Kopparapu, R., Coughlin, J. L., Borucki, W. J., Koch, D., Aguirre, V. S., Allen, C., Barentsen, G., Batalha, N. M., et al. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abc418 · Cited by 183
Self-citationThe evolution of habitable climates under the brightening Sun
Wolf, E. T., & Toon, O. B. (2015) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/2015jd023302 · Cited by 177
Frequent Flaring in the TRAPPIST-1 System—Unsuited for Life?
Vida, K., Kővári, Z., Pál, A., Oláh, K., & Kriskovics, L. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa6f05 · Cited by 189
“We can also do a rudimentary estimation how such eruption changes temporarily the limits of the habitable zone based on the model of Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
BackgroundRevealing the Mysteries of Venus: The DAVINCI Mission
Garvin, J. B., Getty, S., Arney, G., Johnson, N. M., Köhler, E., Schwer, K., Sekerak, M. J., Bartels, A. E., Saylor, R. S., Elliott, V., et al. (2022) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ac63c2 · Cited by 178
The origin of RNA precursors on exoplanets
Rimmer, P. B., Xu, J., Thompson, S. J., Gillen, E., Sutherland, J. D., & Queloz, D. P. (2018) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aar3302 · Cited by 180
THE HABITABLE ZONES OF PRE-MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS
Ramirez, R. M., & Kaltenegger, L. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/797/2/l25 · Cited by 174
“The stellar fluxes (Seff) received at the boundaries of the MS HZ (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014) and the ice line during the star’s pre-MS phase are shown in Figure 3.”
Self-citationReflections on O 2 as a Biosignature in Exoplanetary Atmospheres
Meadows, V. S. (2017) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2016.1578 · Cited by 173
“…environmental resources required to fuel and drive photosynthesis are likely common on a terrestrial planet in the surface liquid water habitable zone—that region around a star in which an Earth-like planet could support liquid water on its surface (Kasting et al., 1993; Kopparapu et al., 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citationKepler Planet Occurrence Rates for Mid-type M Dwarfs as a Function of Spectral Type
Hardegree-Ullman, K. K., Cushing, M. C., Muirhead, P. S., & Christiansen, J. L. (2019) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab21d2 · Cited by 171
THE RADIUS DISTRIBUTION OF PLANETS AROUND COOL STARS
Morton, T. D., & Swift, J. J. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/791/1/10 · Cited by 179
Arney, G., Meadows, V. S., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Deming, D., Robinson, T. D., Mendoza, G. T., Wolf, E. T., & Schwieterman, E. W. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/1/49 · Cited by 179
“The version we use in this study was most recently used to re-calculate habitable zone boundaries around main sequence stars (Kopparapu et al. 2013) and to study the climatic consequences of hazes in the Archean atmosphere (Arney et al. 2016).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationExoplanet Biosignatures: Observational Prospects
Fujii, Y., Angerhausen, D., Deitrick, R., Domagal-Goldman, S., Grenfell, J. L., Hori, Y., Kane, S. R., Pallé, E., Rauer, H., Siegler, N., et al. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1733 · Cited by 193
“ained employing various criteria for the “terrestrial” size and for the range of HZs (Catanzarite & Shao 2011; Traub 2012; Bonfils et al. 2013; Gaidos 2013; Dressing & Charbonneau 2013, 2015; Kopparapu 2013; Petigura et al. 2013; Morton & Swift 2014; Silburt et al. 2015; Zsom 2015; Burke et al. 2015). Whil…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationRauer, H., Aerts, C., Cabrera, J., Deleuil, M., Erikson, A., Gizon, L., Goupil, M.-J., Heras, A., Walloschek, T., Alvarez, J. L., et al. (2025) · Experimental Astronomy · doi:10.1007/s10686-025-09985-9 · Cited by 169
Evolved Climates and Observational Discriminants for the TRAPPIST-1 Planetary System
Lincowski, A., Meadows, V. S., Crisp, D., Robinson, T. D., Luger, R., Lustig‐Yaeger, J., & Arney, G. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aae36a · Cited by 163
Self-citationA STATISTICAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PLANET POPULATION AROUND KEPLER SOLAR-TYPE STARS
Silburt, A., Gaidos, E. J., & Wu, Y. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/799/2/180 · Cited by 166
“The limits of the habitable zone depend on important assumptions regarding the climate state of Earth-like planets (Kopparapu et al. 2013), mass (Kopparapu et al. 2014), and the composition of the atmosphere (Pierrehumbert & Gaidos 2011).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHabitability and Biosignatures of Hycean Worlds
Madhusudhan, N., Piette, A. A. A., & Constantinou, S. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abfd9c · Cited by 170
Tuomi, M., Jones, H. R. A., Barnes, J. R., Anglada-Escudé, G., & Jenkins, J. S. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu358 · Cited by 165
“…these stars are the low-mass ones that orbit their hosts with such separations that, under certain assumptions regarding atmospheric properties, they can be estimated to enable the existence of water in its liquid form on the planetary surfaces (e.g. Selsis et al. 2007; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialJenkins, J. M., Twicken, J. D., Batalha, N. M., Caldwell, D. A., Cochran, W. D., Endl, M., Latham, D. W., Esquerdo, G. A., Seader, S., Bieryla, A., et al. (2015) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-6256/150/2/56 · Cited by 163
“The evolving effective temperature allowed us to determine the inner and outer radii of the conservative and optimistic habitable zone per Kopparapu et al. (2013) as a function of time.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Kopparapu, R. K., Ramirez, R., Kasting, J. F., Eymet, V., Robinson, T. D., Mahadevan, S., Terrien, R. C., Domagal-Goldman, S., Meadows, V., & Deshpande, R.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Bordeaux (FR)
- NASA Astrobiology Institute (US)
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2013-02-26
- Volume
- 765
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 131
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2047751764
- Cited by
- 1,615
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2026: 89 · 2025: 115 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 125 · 2022: 110 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 157 · 2019: 177 · 2018: 149 · 2017: 109 · 2016: 115 · 2015: 83 · 2014: 95 · 2013: 55
- FWCI
- 61.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Oskar-Bordeaux (Universite de Bordeaux) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1126413, 1006676)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NNH05ZDA001C)
- Pennsylvania Space Grant Consortium
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities
- University of Pennsylvania
- University of Washington
- Pennsylvania State University
- NASA Astrobiology Institute
- NASA Headquarters
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Space Science and Extraterrestrial Life
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Space and Planetary Science › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Keywords
- habitable zone, main-sequence stars, terrestrial exoplanets, water loss, runaway greenhouse, stellar effective temperature, stellar flux, M dwarfs, K stars, F and G stars
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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