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HABITABLE ZONES AROUND MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS: NEW ESTIMATES
Open accessAbstract
Identifying terrestrial planets in the habitable zones (HZs) of other stars is one of the primary goals of ongoing radial velocity (RV) and transit exoplanet surveys and proposed future space missions. Most current estimates of the boundaries of the HZ are based on one-dimensional (1D), cloud-free, climate model calculations by Kasting et al. However, this model used band models that were based on older HITRAN and HITEMP line-by-line databases. The inner edge of the HZ in the Kasting et al. model was determined by loss of water, and the outer edge was determined by the maximum greenhouse provided by a CO 2 atmosphere. A conservative estimate for the width of the HZ from this model in our solar system is 0.95–1.67 AU. Here an updated 1D radiative–convective, cloud-free climate model is used to obtain new estimates for HZ widths around F, G, K, and M stars. New H 2 O and CO 2 absorption coefficients, derived from the HITRAN 2008 and HITEMP 2010 line-by-line databases, are important improvements to the climate model. According to the new model, the water-loss (inner HZ) and maximum greenhouse (outer HZ) limits for our solar system are at 0.99 and 1.70 AU, respectively, suggesting that the present Earth lies near the inner edge. Additional calculations are performed for stars with effective temperatures between 2600 and 7200 K, and the results are presented in parametric form, making them easy to apply to actual stars. The new model indicates that, near the inner edge of the HZ, there is no clear distinction between runaway greenhouse and water-loss limits for stars with T eff ≲ 5000 K, which has implications for ongoing planet searches around K and M stars. To assess the potential habitability of extrasolar terrestrial planets, we propose using stellar flux incident on a planet rather than equilibrium temperature. This removes the dependence on planetary (Bond) albedo, which varies depending on the host star's spectral type. We suggest that conservative estimates of the HZ (water-loss and maximum greenhouse limits) should be used for current RV surveys and Kepler mission to obtain a lower limit on η ⊕ , so that future flagship missions like TPF-C and Darwin are not undersized. Our model does not include the radiative effects of clouds; thus, the actual HZ boundaries may extend further in both directions than the estimates just given.
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“The new Kopparapu et al. (2013) habitable zone model recalculates the classic Kasting et al. (1993) habitable zone with updated model inputs, and its habitable zone extends from 0.99 to 1.70 AU.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“However, this study did not include the effects of clouds or circulation of moisture, either of which could stabilize a planet at the inner edge of the habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“In this updated conservative estimation, Earth is very near the inner edge of the current habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“The location of the habitable zone depends on how bright the star is (Kopparapu et al., 2013); for brighter stars, the habitable zone is shifted outward because planets must be farther away from these stars to maintain temperatures necessary for liquid water, and for dimmer stars, the habitable zone is shifted inward (Fig. 18).”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al., 2013
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Cites
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 1,001
Arney, G., Meadows, V., Crisp, D., Schmidt, S. J., Bailey, J., & Robinson, T. D. (2014) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1002/2014je004662 · Cited by 164
“…be present [Sandor et al., 2010], cloud top wind speeds have been observed by Venus Express to steadily increase between 2006 and 2012 [Khatuntsev et al., 2013], and periodic long-term oscillations of winds in the atmosphere have been reported based on tracking cloud motions [Kouyama et al., 2013].”
BackgroundSelf-citationKEPLER 453 b—THE 10thKEPLERTRANSITING CIRCUMBINARY PLANET
Welsh, W. F., Orosz, J. A., Short, D. R., Cochran, W. D., Endl, M., Brugamyer, E., Haghighipour, N., Buchhave, L. A., Doyle, L. R., Fabrycky, D. C., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/809/1/26 · Cited by 162
Is Proxima Centauri b Habitable? A Study of Atmospheric Loss
Dong, C., Lingam, M., Ma, Y., & Cohen, O. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa6438 · Cited by 161
“The Habitable Zone (HZ) is broadly defined as the region around a star where a planet can support liquid water for certain values of the atmospheric pressure (Lammer et al. 2009), and has been extensively investigated (e.g. Kasting et al. 1993; Kasting & Catling 2003; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundLuger, R., Barnes, R., Lopez, E., Fortney, J. J., Jackson, B. K., & Meadows, V. (2015) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2014.1215 · Cited by 160
“Using L bol and T eff , we calculate the location of the HZ from the equations given by Kopparapu et al. (2013) 10 5 to 10 6 10 5 CPL only Q p 10 1 to 10 5 10 4 CPL only s + (s) 10 - 2 to 10 - 1 10 - 1 CTL only s p (s) 10 - 3 to 10 3 10 - 1 CTL only b 0.7–1.23 1.23 See Eq.”
InfluentialSelf-citationGeologic Constraints on Early Mars Climate
Kite, E. S. (2019) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-018-0575-5 · Cited by 168
“low insolation puts Early Mars outside the circumstellar habitable zone—at least according to basic forward models of habitable-planet climate (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundThe HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets
Astudillo-Defru, N., Forveille, T., Bonfils, X., Ségransan, D., Bouchy, F., Delfosse, X., Lovis, C., Mayor, M., Murgas, F., Pepe, F. A., et al. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201630153 · Cited by 159
“Gl 628c falls outside the conservative HZ (Kopparapu et al. 2013); however, when considering the GCM in synchronous rotating planets (Kopparapu et al. 2016), the incident radiation means that the planet lies within the circumstellar HZ of its parent star.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKasting, J. F., Kopparapu, R., Ramirez, R. M., & Harman, C. E. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1309107110 · Cited by 158
“Our new model (42) includes updated absorption coefficients for both CO2 and H2O, with the latter being based on line parameters from the relatively new HITEMP database.”
MethodSelf-citationStellar spectroscopy in the near-infrared with a laser frequency comb
Metcalf, A. J., Anderson, T., Bender, C. F., Blakeslee, S., Brand, W., Carlson, D. R., Cochran, W. D., Diddams, S. A., Endl, M., Fredrick, C., et al. (2019) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.6.000233 · Cited by 166
Self-citationHidden Water in Magma Ocean Exoplanets
Dorn, C., & Lichtenberg, T. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac33af · Cited by 151
TOWARD THE MINIMUM INNER EDGE DISTANCE OF THE HABITABLE ZONE
Zsom, A., Seager, S., DeWit, J., & Stamenković, V. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/778/2/109 · Cited by 117
“Often it is assumed that the stratosphere has a constant 200 K temperature (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialMAGNETOSPHERIC STRUCTURE AND ATMOSPHERIC JOULE HEATING OF HABITABLE PLANETS ORBITING M-DWARF STARS
Cohen, O., Drake, J. J., Glocer, A., Garraffo, C., Poppenhaeger, K., Bell, J. M., Ridley, A. J., & Gombosi, T. I. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/790/1/57 · Cited by 146
“…potential Earth-like planets in the HZ , taking into account the stellar luminosity, as well as atmospheric effects such as green house gasses and cloud coverage (e.g., Dressing & Charbonneau 2013; Gaidos 2013; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Kopparapu 2013; Petigura et al. 2013; Zsom et al. 2013).”
BackgroundFauchez, T. J., Turbet, M., Villanueva, G. L., Wolf, E. T., Arney, G., Kopparapu, R., Lincowski, A., Mandell, A. M., de Wit, J., Pidhorodetska, D., et al. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab5862 · Cited by 143
Self-citationA seven-planet resonant chain in TRAPPIST-1
Luger, R., Sestovic, M., Kruse, E., Grimm, S. L., Demory, B.-O., Agol, E., Bolmont, É., Fabrycky, D. C., Fernandes, C. S., Grootel, V. V., et al. (2017) · doi:10.7892/boris.113578 · Cited by 184
Day–night cloud asymmetry prevents early oceans on Venus but not on Earth
Turbet, M., Bolmont, É., Chaverot, G., Ehrenreich, D., Leconte, J., & Marcq, E. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03873-w · Cited by 144
Stellar diameters and temperatures – V. 11 newly characterized exoplanet host stars
von Braun, K., Boyajian, T. S., van Belle, G., Kane, S. R., Jones, J. W., Farrington, C. D., Schaefer, G. H., Vargas, N., Scott, N. J., ten Brummelaar, T. A., et al. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt2360 · Cited by 142
“The HZ boundaries in this paper are calculated based on the updated formalism of Kopparapu et al. (2013a,b).6 Kopparapu et al. (2013a) define the boundaries based on a runaway greenhouse effect or a runaway snowball effect as a function of stellar luminosity and effective temperature, plus water…”
BackgroundMethodTHE ATMOSPHERES OF EARTHLIKE PLANETS AFTER GIANT IMPACT EVENTS
Lupu, R., Zahnle, K., Marley, M., Schaefer, L., Fegley, B., Morley, C., Cahoy, K., Freedman, R., & Fortney, J. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/784/1/27 · Cited by 110
“The latest estimates (Bonfils et al. 2013; Kopparapu et al. 2013) give an occurrence rate of about 0.4–0.6 terrestrial planets in the habitable zone, per star.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Habitability of Proxima Centauri b: Environmental States and Observational Discriminants
Meadows, V. S., Arney, G., Schwieterman, E. W., Lustig‐Yaeger, J., Lincowski, A., Robinson, T., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Deitrick, R., Barnes, R. K., Fleming, D. P., et al. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2016.1589 · Cited by 164
“The KSPECTRUM7 program was originally used to calculate the correlated-k coefficients using the HITRAN 2008 line lists (Rothman et al., 2009) and updated in the work of Kopparapu et al. (2013) with the HITEMP 2010 line lists (Rothman et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationExoplanet Biosignatures: Observational Prospects
Fujii, Y., Angerhausen, D., Deitrick, R., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Grenfell, J. L., Hori, Y., Kane, S. R., Πάλλη, Ε., Rauer, H., Siegler, N., et al. (2018) · doi:10.7892/boris.126822 · Cited by 162
Self-citationSearching the Entirety of Kepler Data. II. Occurrence Rate Estimates for FGK Stars
Kunimoto, M., & Matthews, J. M. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab88b0 · Cited by 139
VALIDATION OF 12 SMALL KEPLER TRANSITING PLANETS IN THE HABITABLE ZONE
Torres, G., Kipping, D., Fressin, F., Caldwell, D. A., Twicken, J. D., Ballard, S. A., Batalha, N. M., Bryson, S., Ciardi, D. R., Henze, C. E., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/800/2/99 · Cited by 137
“Definitions of the HZ are actively debated and have changed over time (e.g., Kasting et al. 1993; Selsis et al. 2007; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Seager 2013; Leconte et al. 2013; Zsom et al. 2013; Kopparapu et al. 2014), as has our understanding of the radius at which planets transition from being…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEhlmann, B. L., Anderson, F. S., Andrews‐Hanna, J. C., Catling, D. C., Christensen, P. R., Cohen, B. A., Dressing, C. D., Edwards, C. S., Elkins-Tanton, L. T., Farley, K. A., et al. (2016) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1002/2016je005134 · Cited by 140
Self-citationLOWER LIMITS ON APERTURE SIZE FOR AN EXOEARTH DETECTING CORONAGRAPHIC MISSION
Stark, C. C., Roberge, A., Mandell, A. M., Clampin, M., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., McElwain, M. W., & Stapelfeldt, K. R. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/149 · Cited by 134
“Kopparapu et al. (2013) shows that the classical HZ deviates by a few percent from the L L☉ scaling relation, though we continue use of this simple scaling relation out of expediency.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationDomagal-Goldman, S. D., Wright, K. E., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Wright, K. E., Adamala, K., Arina de la Rubia, L., Bond, J., Dartnell, L. R., Goldman, A. D., Lynch, K., et al. (2016) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1460 · Cited by 136
“The location of the habitable zone depends on how bright the star is (Kopparapu et al., 2013); for brighter stars, the habitable zone is shifted outward because planets must be farther away from these stars to maintain temperatures necessary for liquid water, and for dimmer stars, the habitable zone is shifted inward…”
InfluentialSelf-citationWater-rich planets: How habitable is a water layer deeper than on Earth?
Noack, L., Höning, D., Rivoldini, A., Heistracher, C., Zimov, N., Journaux, B., Lammer, H., Hoolst, T. V., & Bredehöft, J. H. (2016) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.05.009 · Cited by 125
A candidate short-period sub-Earth orbiting Proxima Centauri
Faria, J. P., Mascareño, A. S., Figueira, P., Silva, A. M., Damasso, M., Demangeon, O. D. S., Pepe, F. A., Santos, N. C., Rebolo, R., Cristiani, S., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142337 · Cited by 132
Formation, Habitability, and Detection of Extrasolar Moons
Heller, R., Williams, D. M., Kipping, D., Limbach, M. A., Turner, E. L., Greenberg, R. J., Sasaki, T., Bolmont, É., Grasset, O., Lewis, K. M., et al. (2014) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2014.1147 · Cited by 137
“This difference is due to the expectation that the planet will emit primarily in the infrared, where both Rayleigh scattering is less effective and molecular absorption bands are more prominent, decreasing the albedo (Kopparapu et al., 2013).”
Chaos Detection and Predictability
Skokos, C., Gottwald, G. A., & Laskar, J. (2016) · Lecture notes in physics · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-48410-4 · Cited by 129
Way, M. J., Aleinov, I., Amundsen, D. S., Chandler, M. A., Clune, T. L., C, A. D. D. G., Fujii, Y., Kelley, M., Kiang, N. Y.-L., Sohl, L. E., et al. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aa7a06 · Cited by 127
“…models (e.g., Kasting 1988; Kasting et al. 1993; Pavlov et al. 2001; Segura et al. 2003; Domagal-Goldman et al. 2008, 2011; Kitzmann et al. 2010; Zsom et al. 2012; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Rugheimer et al. 2013, 2015; Grenfell et al. 2014; Ramirez et al. 2014a, 2014b; Meadows et al. 2016).”
BackgroundHeller, R., & Armstrong, J. (2013) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2013.1088 · Cited by 132
“Dashed lines indicate the borders of the HZ following Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
InfluentialTidal Heating of Earth-like Exoplanets around M Stars: Thermal, Magnetic, and Orbital Evolutions
Driscoll, P. E., & Barnes, R. (2015) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1325 · Cited by 125
“Targeting low-mass stars is beneficial for at least three reasons: (1) the habitable zone (HZ) around M stars is much closer to the star (Kopparapu et al., 2013), making an Earth-mass planet in the HZ an easier target for both transit and radial velocity detection, (2) low-mass M stars are more…”
BackgroundExoplanet Biosignatures: Future Directions
Walker, S. I., Bains, W., Cronin, L., DasSarma, S., Danielache, S. O., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Kaçar, B., Kiang, N. Y.-L., Lenardic, A., Reinhard, C. T., et al. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1738 · Cited by 137
Self-citationHabitable Climate Scenarios for Proxima Centauri b with a Dynamic Ocean
C, A. D. D. G., Way, M. J., Amundsen, D. S., Aleinov, I., Kelley, M., Kiang, N. Y.-L., & Clune, T. L. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1760 · Cited by 127
Haqq-Misra, J. D., Wolf, E. T., Joshi, M., Zhang, X., & Kopparapu, R. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa9f1f · Cited by 123
“…system (Gillon et al. 2017) indicate that Mdwarfs can harbor terrestrial plants within their liquid water habitable zones (Kasting et al. 1993; Selsis et al. 2007; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014; Yang et al. 2013, 2014), which makes them likely candidates for upcoming surveys with JWST and TESS.”
BackgroundSelf-citationKEPLER-1647B: THE LARGEST AND LONGEST-PERIOD KEPLER TRANSITING CIRCUMBINARY PLANET
Kostov, V. B., Orosz, J. A., Welsh, W. F., Doyle, L. R., Fabrycky, D. C., Haghighipour, N., Quarles, B., Short, D. R., Cochran, W. D., Endl, M., et al. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/827/1/86 · Cited by 124
“The dark- and light-green regions represent the conservative and extended HZ, respectively (Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
BackgroundLow palaeopressure of the martian atmosphere estimated from the size distribution of ancient craters
Kite, E. S., Williams, J.-P., Lucas, A., & Aharonson, O. (2014) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo2137 · Cited by 123
Mulders, G. D., Ciesla, F. J., Min, M., & Pascucci, I. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/807/1/9 · Cited by 117
“Figure 1 shows the median snow lines for the same stellar mass range, compared to the recent habitable zone estimate from Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
BackgroundHabitability of Exoplanet Waterworlds
Kite, E. S., & Ford, E. B. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aad6e0 · Cited by 124
“H2 blankets of the appropriate thickness to prolong habitability within the HZ of Kopparapu et al. (2013) require fine-tuning to form.”
BackgroundCARMENES input catalogue of M dwarfs
Díez-Alonso, E., Caballero, J. A., Montes, D., Juez, F. J. D. C., Dreizler, S., Dubois, F., Jeffers, S. V., Lalitha, S., Naves, R., Reiners, A., et al. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833316 · Cited by 120
A Second Terrestrial Planet Orbiting the Nearby M Dwarf LHS 1140
Ment, K., Dittmann, J., Astudillo-Defru, N., Charbonneau, D., Irwin, J., Bonfils, X., Murgas, F., Almenara, J. M., Forveille, T., Agol, E., et al. (2019) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aaf1b1 · Cited by 119
“Depending on the atmospheric properties, the conservative inner and outer habitable zone limits for LHS 1140 would be 0.07 au and 0.14 au, respectively (Kopparapu et al. 2013), placing LHS 1140 b well within the conservative habitable zone.”
BackgroundInfluentialHartmann, J., Tran, H., Armante, R., Boulet, C., Campargue, A., Forget, F., Gianfrani, L., Gordon, I. E., Guerlet, S., Gustafsson, M., et al. (2018) · Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2018.03.016 · Cited by 117
Planetary Candidates Observed By Kepler Iv: Planet Sample from Q1-Q8 (22 Months)
Wolfgang, A. (2016) · University of Southern Queensland ePrints (University of Southern Queensland) · doi:10.15781/t27s7hv83 · Cited by 116
Salvador, A., Massol, H., Davaille, A., Marcq, E., Sarda, P., & Chassefière, É. (2017) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1002/2017je005286 · Cited by 125
The Pale Orange Dot: The Spectrum and Habitability of Hazy Archean Earth
Arney, G., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Meadows, V., Wolf, E. T., Schwieterman, E. W., Charnay, B., Claire, M. W., Hébrard, É., & Trainer, M. G. (2025) · Figshare · Cited by 117
Self-citationDoppler spectroscopy as a path to the detection of Earth-like planets
Mayor, M., Lovis, C., & Santos, N. C. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature13780 · Cited by 118
Habitability of terrestrial-mass planets in the HZ of M Dwarfs – I. H/He-dominated atmospheres
Owen, J. E., & Mohanty, S. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw959 · Cited by 113
“…entirely so that it is replaced by a tenuous secondary atmosphere, such as those of the solar system terrestrial planets (e.g. Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013); or separate H and He in planets with a low initial H/He fraction to leave a habitable He atmosphere (Hu, Seager, & Yung…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAnglada-Escudé, G., Arriagada, P., Tuomi, M., Zechmeister, M., Jenkins, J. S., Ofir, A., Dreizler, S., Gerlach, E., Marvin, C. J., Reiners, A., et al. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slu076 · Cited by 113
“With a period of 48.6 days, Kapteyn b lies well within the liquid water habitable zone of the star (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialAdvances in exoplanet science from Kepler
Lissauer, J. J., Dawson, R. I., & Tremaine, S. D. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature13781 · Cited by 113
ON THE OCCURRENCE RATE OF HOT JUPITERS IN DIFFERENT STELLAR ENVIRONMENTS
Wang, J., Fischer, D. A., Horch, E. P., & Huang, C. X. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/799/2/229 · Cited by 115
“This issue has already been complicated by the definition of the habitable zone (Seager 2013; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundA Volcanic Hydrogen Habitable Zone
Ramirez, R. M., & Kaltenegger, L. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa60c8 · Cited by 114
“The model uses correlated-k coefficients to parameterize absorption by H2O and CO2 across 38 solar intervals and 55 infrared intervals (e.g., see Kopparapu et al. 2013 for details).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationSTELLAR ACTIVITY MIMICS A HABITABLE-ZONE PLANET AROUND KAPTEYN’S STAR
Robertson, P. M., Roy, A., & Mahadevan, S. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/805/2/l22 · Cited by 110
“Their comparatively small masses and radii make the detection of lowmass planets in the habitable zone (HZ; Kopparapu et al. 2013) via radial velocity (RV) and transit photometry feasible even now.”
BackgroundSelf-citationVenus as a Laboratory for Exoplanetary Science
Kane, S. R., Arney, G., Crisp, D., Domagal‐Goldman, S., Glaze, L. S., Goldblatt, C., Grinspoon, D., Head, J. W., III, Lenardic, A., Unterborn, C. T., et al. (2019) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2019je005939 · Cited by 107
“liquid surface water until as recently as 1 Gya (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe First Habitable-zone Earth-sized Planet from TESS. I. Validation of the TOI-700 System
Gilbert, E. A., Barclay, T., Schlieder, J. E., Quintana, E. V., Hord, B. J., Kostov, V. B., Lopez, E. D., Rowe, J. F., Hoffman, K., Walkowicz, L. M., et al. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aba4b2 · Cited by 109
“TOI-700 d receives an incident flux of 0.86±0.2 that of Earthʼs insolation, which places it within the circumstellar habitable zone (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationThe CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Marfil, E., Tabernero, H. M., Montes, D., Caballero, J. A., Lázaro, F. J., Hernández, J. I. G., Nagel, E., Passegger, V. M., Schweitzer, A., Ribas, I., et al. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141980 · Cited by 108
3D Selection of 167 Substellar Companions to Nearby Stars
Feng, F., Butler, R. P., Vogt, S. S., Clement, M. S., Tinney, C. G., Cui, K., Aizawa, M., Jones, H. R. A., Bailey, J., Burt, J., et al. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ac7e57 · Cited by 109
Schwieterman, E. W., Meadows, V. S., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Deming, D., Arney, G. N., Luger, R., Harman, C. E., Misra, A., & Barnes, R. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8205/819/1/l13 · Cited by 111
“Some of these known planets reside within the habitable zone (HZ) of their host star (Kopparapu et al. 2013), but are too distant from Earth for spectroscopic follow-up to characterize their planetary environments.”
BackgroundSelf-citationTurbet, M., Bolmont, É., Ehrenreich, D., Gratier, P., Leconte, J., Selsis, F., Hara, N., & Lovis, C. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201937151 · Cited by 108
“This is particularly relevant in the H2O steam atmosphere case where the surface temperature can reach thousands of Kelvin (Kopparapu et al. 2013; Goldblatt et al. 2013; Turbet et al. 2019), which imposes an extreme surface boundary condition on the interior.”
BackgroundInfluentialErkaev, N. V., Lammer, H., Odert, P., Kulikov, Y. N., Kislyakova, K. G., Khodachenko, M. L., Güdel, M., Hanslmeier, A., & Biernat, H. K. (2013) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2012.0957 · Cited by 105
“According to Koskinen et al. (2010) for XUV fluxes > 25 times of that of the present Sun one can expect a stronger decrease of H2 in hydrogen dominated thermospheres and therefore a higher amount of H atoms in the upper atmosphere.”
BackgroundSPECULOOS: Ultracool dwarf transit survey
Sebastian, D., Gillon, M., Ducrot, E., Pozuelos, F. J., Garcia, L. J., Günther, M. N., Delrez, L., Queloz, D. P., Demory, B.-O., Triaud, A. H. M. J., et al. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038827 · Cited by 106
ON THE FREQUENCY OF POTENTIAL VENUS ANALOGS FROM KEPLER DATA
Kane, S. R., Kopparapu, R. K., & Domagal-Goldman, S. D. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/794/1/l5 · Cited by 106
“For example, the models of Kasting et al. (1993) and Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014) quantify incident fluxes that would cause planetary temperature conditions to sway to either a runaway greenhouse effect or to a runaway snowball effect.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationObertas, A., Laerhoven, C. V., & Tamayo, D. (2017) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2017.04.010 · Cited by 105
“Consequently, Kopparapu et al. (2013) suggest using 3D global circulation models.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialVolcanism and outgassing of stagnant-lid planets: Implications for the habitable zone
Noack, L., Rivoldini, A., & Hoolst, T. V. (2017) · Physics of The Earth and Planetary Interiors · doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2017.05.010 · Cited by 102
Characterization of the K2-18 multi-planetary system with HARPS
Cloutier, R., Astudillo-Defru, N., Doyon, R., Bonfils, X., Almenara, J. M., Benneke, B., Bouchy, F., Delfosse, X., Ehrenreich, D., Forveille, T., et al. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731558 · Cited by 113
“5 dwarf with a period of ∼32.9 days placing it directly within the star’s habitable zone (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialMOA-2011-BLG-293LB: FIRST MICROLENSING PLANET POSSIBLY IN THE HABITABLE ZONE
Batista, V., Beaulieu, J., Gould, A. P., Bennett, D. P., Yee, J. C., Fukui, A., Gaudi, B. S., Sumi, T., & Udalski, A. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/780/1/54 · Cited by 104
“More recent models for habitability around main-sequence stars are given by Kopparapu et al. (2013) and using their online HZ calculator confirms these conclusions on MOA-2011-BLG-293, placing its empirical habitable zone between 0.52 and 1.28 AU, taking Mars and Venus as references for outer and…”
MethodInfluentialWordsworth, R., Schaefer, L., & Fischer, R. A. (2018) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aab608 · Cited by 121
“Others, such as Proxima Centauri b and LHS1140b, are potentially habitable to Earth-like life, depending on their atmospheric composition (Kasting et al. 1993; Wordsworth et al. 2010b; Pierrehumbert 2011a; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Barnes et al. 2016; Turbet et al. 2016).”
BackgroundHabitability and Biosignatures of Hycean Worlds
Madhusudhan, N., Piette, A. A. A., & Constantinou, S. (2021) · Apollo (University of Cambridge) · doi:10.17863/cam.76040 · Cited by 104
Climate stability of habitable Earth-like planets
Kristen Menou, A. (2015) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.07.046 · Cited by 101
“Generalizations of these concepts to Earth-like planets around other stars are central to the definition of their liquid water habitable zone [2, 7, 8].”
BackgroundOccurrence rates of planets orbiting M Stars: applying ABC to Kepler DR25, Gaia DR2, and 2MASS data
Hsu, D. C., Ford, E. B., & Terrien, R. C. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2391 · Cited by 103
“Kopparapu et al. (2013), Gaidos (2013) used similar methods, but arrived at larger estimates for the HZ rate, primarily due to different HZ limits.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationA super-Earth and two sub-Neptunes transiting the nearby and quiet M dwarf TOI-270
Günther, M. N., Pozuelos, F. J., Dittmann, J., Dragomir, D., Kane, S. R., Daylan, T., Feinstein, A. D., Huang, C. X., Morton, T. D., Bonfanti, A., et al. (2019) · Cited by 103
The effects of stellar winds on the magnetospheres and potential habitability of exoplanets
See, V., Jardine, M., Vidotto, A. A., Petit, P. M., Marsden, S. C., Jeffers, S. V., & do Nascimento, J.-D. (2014) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201424323 · Cited by 108
“This region is defined as the set of orbital distances at which liquid water can exist on the planetary surface (Huang 1960; Hart 1978; Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013) and is determined by considering the flux of radiation incident on the planet.”
BackgroundAtmospheric regimes and trends on exoplanets and brown dwarfs
Zhang, X. (2020) · Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1088/1674-4527/20/7/99 · Cited by 111
“For example, the estimates in Figure 16 (from Kopparapu et al. 2013) show the dependence of insolation required for the habitable zone on the stellar temperature.”
BackgroundMethodAtmospheres of Rocky Exoplanets
Wordsworth, R., & Kreidberg, L. (2022) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-052920-125632 · Cited by 128
Kennedy, G. M., & Wyatt, M. C. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt900 · Cited by 100
“The width of the habitable zone is of course very uncertain, and is probably at least a factor of two wide in radius (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundEffects of Extreme Obliquity Variations on the Habitability of Exoplanets
Armstrong, J. C., Barnes, R., Domagal-Goldman, S., Breiner, J., Quinn, T. R., & Meadows, V. S. (2014) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2013.1129 · Cited by 130
“In its latest revision (Kopparapu et al., 2013), the HZ is calculated for a highly idealized case, in which many properties of the star, planet, and planetary system are ignored.”
Self-citationLIMIT CYCLES CAN REDUCE THE WIDTH OF THE HABITABLE ZONE
Haqq-Misra, J., Kopparapu, R. K., Batalha, N. E., Harman, C. E., & Kasting, J. F. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/827/2/120 · Cited by 98
“The moist greenhouse effect is difficult to simulate with one-dimensional models that assume a saturated troposphere (Kopparapu et al. 2013), but it does appear in some general circulation models (Wolf & Toon 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThree Red Suns in the Sky: A Transiting, Terrestrial Planet in a Triple M-dwarf System at 6.9 pc
Winters, J. G., Medina, A. A., Irwin, J. M., Charbonneau, D., Astudillo-Defru, N., Horch, E. P., Eastman, J. D., Vrijmoet, E. H., Henry, T. J., Diamond-Lowe, H., et al. (2019) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab364d · Cited by 100
Transition to a Moist Greenhouse with CO2 and solar forcing
Popp, M., Schmidt, H., & Marotzke, J. (2016) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms10627 · Cited by 99
DISENTANGLING PLANETS AND STELLAR ACTIVITY FOR GLIESE 667C
Robertson, P., & Mahadevan, S. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/793/2/l24 · Cited by 98
“Of these planets–b (P = 7.2d) and c (P = 28.1d)–planet c is believed to orbit near the center of the circumstellar habitable zone (HZ; Kopparapu et al. 2013), albeit on a significantly eccentric (e = 0.3) orbit.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationCALCULATING THE HABITABLE ZONE OF BINARY STAR SYSTEMS. I. S-TYPE BINARIES
Kaltenegger, L., & Haghighipour, N. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/777/2/165 · Cited by 97
“We calculate the spectral weight factors of both α Cen A and B (Table 2), and using the minimum and maximum added flux of the secondary star, estimate the limits of their Binary HZs using equation (2).”
InfluentialThe habitability of a stagnant-lid Earth
Tosi, N., Godolt, M., Stracke, B., Ruedas, T., Grenfell, J. L., Höning, D., Nikolaou, A., Plesa, A., Breuer, D., & Spohn, T. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201730728 · Cited by 95
“4.2) such as those performed by Kasting et al. (1993b) and Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWolf, E. T., Shields, A. L., Kopparapu, R. K., Haqq-Misra, J., & Toon, O. B. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa5ffc · Cited by 115
“This limit has recently been revised for initially warm (Kopparapu et al. 2013) and initially ice covered planets (Haqq-Misra et al. 2016), using a similar methodology with a 1D model.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationA temperate exo-Earth around a quiet M dwarf at 3.4 parsec
Bonfils, X., Astudillo-Defru, N., Díaz, R., Almenara, J.-M., Forveille, T., Bouchy, F., Delfosse, X., Lovis, C., Mayor, M., Murgas, F., et al. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731973 · Cited by 97
“Using theoretically motivated albedos, the Kopparapu et al. (2017) criteria place the planet firmly outside the habitable zone, while Kopparapu et al. (2013), Yang et al. (2014), and Kopparapu et al. (2016) find it outside, inside and just at the inner edge of the habitable zone.”
BackgroundDiscovery of a Third Transiting Planet in the Kepler-47 Circumbinary System
Orosz, J. A., Welsh, W. F., Haghighipour, N., Quarles, B., Short, D. R., Mills, S. M., Satyal, S., Torres, G., Agol, E., Fabrycky, D. C., et al. (2019) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab0ca0 · Cited by 101
Lichtenberg, T., Bower, D. J., Hammond, M., Boukrouche, R., Sanan, P., Tsai, S., & Pierrehumbert, R. T. (2021) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2020je006711 · Cited by 95
“Our computed radiation limit closely aligns with recent estimates from Goldblatt et al. (2013), Kopparapu et al. (2013), and Hamano et al. (2015) until about 2000 K, and further compares favorably to 280 W m−2 in Marcq et al. (2017) and 282 W m−2 in Katyal et al. (2019).”
ResultThe CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Ribas, I., Reiners, A., Zechmeister, M., Caballero, J. A., Morales, J. C., Sabotta, S., Baroch, D., Amado, P. J., Quirrenbach, A., Abril, M. A., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244879 · Cited by 97
Characterizing Rocky and Gaseous Exoplanets with 2 m Class Space-based Coronagraphs
Robinson, T. D., Stapelfeldt, K. R., & Marley, M. S. (2016) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/128/960/025003 · Cited by 96
“These IWA constraints could be alleviated by investigating worlds at the outer edge of the habitable zone (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013), but the low incident flux on these worlds pushes integration to times &103 hr (assuming an Earth-like size and reflectivity), even at R = 10.”
BackgroundSelf-citationDressing, C. D., Vanderburg, A. M., Schlieder, J. E., Crossfield, I. J. M., Knutson, H. A., Newton, E. R., Ciardi, D. R., Fulton, B. J., Gonzales, E. J., Howard, A. W., et al. (2017) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa89f2 · Cited by 96
“In order to assess whether any of these planets might be habitable, we used the polynomial relations from Kopparapu et al. (2013) to determine the insolation flux boundaries corresponding to conservative habitable zone (HZ) limits of the moist greenhouse inner edge and the maximum greenhouse outer…”
MethodLinsenmeier, M., Pascale, S., & Lucarini, V. (2014) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2014.11.003 · Cited by 95
“which the transition to a completely frozen climate state occurs. Estimations with radiative-convection models (RCMs) predict this outer boundary to be at around 1:7AU distance from a Sun-like star (Kopparapu et al., 2013). These simple RCMs assume temporal and spatial homogeneity. Close to the outer edge of the HZ, h…”
InfluentialPROSPECTING IN ULTRACOOL DWARFS: MEASURING THE METALLICITIES OF MID- AND LATE-M DWARFS
Mann, A. W., Deacon, N. R., Gaidos, E. J., Ansdell, M., Brewer, J. M., Liu, M. C., Magnier, E. A., & Aller, K. M. (2014) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-6256/147/6/160 · Cited by 94
“Further, the habitable zone for a late M-type dwarf is 5-10 times closer to the star than for an early M-type dwarf (Kopparapu et al. 2013), resulting in a larger Doppler signal and more likely and 1 Harlan J. Smith Fellow, Department of Astronomy, University of Texas at Austin 2 Institute for…”
BackgroundCALCULATING THE HABITABLE ZONE OF BINARY STAR SYSTEMS. II. P-TYPE BINARIES
Haghighipour, N., & Kaltenegger, L. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/777/2/166 · Cited by 94
“Liu et al. (2013) also made an effort to calculate the HZ of Kepler 16 by adopting an equilibrium temperature approach that greatly diverges from the current model of HZ as developed by Kopparapu et al. (2013a).”
InfluentialCarone, L., Keppens, R., & Decin, L. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1752 · Cited by 90
“Such a planet lies in any case in the habitable zone as investigated by, e.g. Kasting et al. (1993), Kopparapu et al. (2013), Yang et al. (2014) and Zsom et al. (2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialTRIGONOMETRIC PARALLAXES FOR 1507 NEARBY MID-TO-LATE M DWARFS
Dittmann, J., Irwin, J. M., Charbonneau, D., & Berta-Thompson, Z. K. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/784/2/156 · Cited by 92
“The boundary of the habitable zone is currently a topic of debate (see, for example, Gaidos 2013; Danchi & Lopez 2013; Kopparapu et al. 2013), but even in the most simple definition (distance at which the equilibrium temperature of a blackbody supports the existence of liquid water), the period of…”
BackgroundThe CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Fuhrmeister, B., Czesla, S., Schmitt, J. H. M. M., Jeffers, S. V., Caballero, J. A., Zechmeister, M., Reiners, A., Ribas, I., Amado, P. J., Quirrenbach, A., et al. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732204 · Cited by 92
A Review of Possible Planetary Atmospheres in the TRAPPIST-1 System
Turbet, M., Bolmont, É., Bourrier, V., Demory, B.-O., Leconte, J., Owen, J. E., & Wolf, E. T. (2020) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-020-00719-1 · Cited by 101
“sphere, the surface temperature due to the greenhouse effect of water is so high (Kopparapu et al., 2013b; Goldblatt et al., 2013; Turbet et al., 2019a) that the surface and mantle are expected to melt.”
BackgroundDETECTING AND CONSTRAINING N2ABUNDANCES IN PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES USING COLLISIONAL PAIRS
Schwieterman, E. W., Robinson, T. D., Meadows, V. S., Misra, A., & Domagal-Goldman, S. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/810/1/57 · Cited by 100
“The conservative and optimistic inner edge limits for the habitable zone of a Teff = 2800 K, L = 0.0022 Le M5V star are a = 0.049 AU and a = 0.039 AU, respectively (Kopparapu et al. 2013).8 We assumed the same set of temperature and gas mixing ratios in Figure 1.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe Case for a Gaian Bottleneck: The Biology of Habitability
Chopra, A., & Lineweaver, C. H. (2016) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1387 · Cited by 115
“(Color graphics available at www.liebertonline.com/ast) the more modern, larger values of 1.5–1.7 AU ( e.g. , Kasting et al. , 1993; Kopparapu et al. , 2013).”
InfluentialTwicken, J. D., Jenkins, J. M., Seader, S. E., Tenenbaum, P., Smith, J. C., Brownston, L. S., Burke, C. J., Catanzarite, J. H., Clarke, B. D., Cote, M. T., et al. (2016) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-6256/152/6/158 · Cited by 89
“The relationship between effective stellar flux and the habitable zone of main-sequence stars was discussed by Kopparapu et al. (2013).”
BackgroundFontenla, J. M., Linsky, J. L., Garrison, J., France, K. C., Buccino, A. P., Mauas, P. J. D., Vieytes, M., & Walkowicz, L. M. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/830/2/154 · Cited by 88
“Kopparapu et al. (2013) proposed that the occurrence rate for such planets is about a factor of three larger based on new calculations of the habitable zone boundaries, which will place the likely location of the nearest habitable planet even closer than 5 pc.”
BackgroundHinkel, N., & Unterborn, C. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaa5b4 · Cited by 66
“The optimistic (Opt) and conservative (Cons) habitable zone (HZ) distances were determined using the calculator offered by the Virtual Planetary Laboratory5 per the equations in Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014).”
BackgroundMethodThe First Habitable-zone Earth-sized Planet from TESS. I. Validation of the TOI-700 System
Barclay, T., Paudel, R. R., Al., E., & Pidhorodetska, D. (2020) · Repository of the Academy's Library (Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) · doi:10.13016/m2zfvo-18ip · Cited by 89
Exoplanet Classification and Yield Estimates for Direct Imaging Missions
Kopparapu, R. K., Hébrard, É., Belikov, R., Batalha, N. M., Mulders, G. D., Stark, C., Teal, D., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., & Mandell, A. M. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aab205 · Cited by 88
“…HZ, which has been studied by both 1D and 3D climate models (Kasting et al. 1993; Selsis et al. 2007; Abe et al. 2011; Pierrehumbert & Gaidos 2011; Kopparapu et al. 2013; 10 http://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/ 11 http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/habex/ 12 https://asd.gsfc.nasa.gov/luvoir/ Leconte et…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Kopparapu, R. K., Ramirez, R., Kasting, J. F., Eymet, V., Robinson, T. D., Mahadevan, S., Terrien, R. C., Domagal-Goldman, S., Meadows, V., & Deshpande, R.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Bordeaux (FR)
- NASA Astrobiology Institute (US)
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2013-02-26
- Volume
- 765
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 131
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2047751764
- Cited by
- 1,615
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2026: 89 · 2025: 115 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 125 · 2022: 110 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 157 · 2019: 177 · 2018: 149 · 2017: 109 · 2016: 115 · 2015: 83 · 2014: 95 · 2013: 55
- FWCI
- 61.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Oskar-Bordeaux (Universite de Bordeaux) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1126413, 1006676)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NNH05ZDA001C)
- Pennsylvania Space Grant Consortium
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities
- University of Pennsylvania
- University of Washington
- Pennsylvania State University
- NASA Astrobiology Institute
- NASA Headquarters
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Space Science and Extraterrestrial Life
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Space and Planetary Science › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Keywords
- habitable zone, main-sequence stars, terrestrial exoplanets, water loss, runaway greenhouse, stellar effective temperature, stellar flux, M dwarfs, K stars, F and G stars
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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