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HABITABLE ZONES AROUND MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS: NEW ESTIMATES
Open accessAbstract
Identifying terrestrial planets in the habitable zones (HZs) of other stars is one of the primary goals of ongoing radial velocity (RV) and transit exoplanet surveys and proposed future space missions. Most current estimates of the boundaries of the HZ are based on one-dimensional (1D), cloud-free, climate model calculations by Kasting et al. However, this model used band models that were based on older HITRAN and HITEMP line-by-line databases. The inner edge of the HZ in the Kasting et al. model was determined by loss of water, and the outer edge was determined by the maximum greenhouse provided by a CO 2 atmosphere. A conservative estimate for the width of the HZ from this model in our solar system is 0.95–1.67 AU. Here an updated 1D radiative–convective, cloud-free climate model is used to obtain new estimates for HZ widths around F, G, K, and M stars. New H 2 O and CO 2 absorption coefficients, derived from the HITRAN 2008 and HITEMP 2010 line-by-line databases, are important improvements to the climate model. According to the new model, the water-loss (inner HZ) and maximum greenhouse (outer HZ) limits for our solar system are at 0.99 and 1.70 AU, respectively, suggesting that the present Earth lies near the inner edge. Additional calculations are performed for stars with effective temperatures between 2600 and 7200 K, and the results are presented in parametric form, making them easy to apply to actual stars. The new model indicates that, near the inner edge of the HZ, there is no clear distinction between runaway greenhouse and water-loss limits for stars with T eff ≲ 5000 K, which has implications for ongoing planet searches around K and M stars. To assess the potential habitability of extrasolar terrestrial planets, we propose using stellar flux incident on a planet rather than equilibrium temperature. This removes the dependence on planetary (Bond) albedo, which varies depending on the host star's spectral type. We suggest that conservative estimates of the HZ (water-loss and maximum greenhouse limits) should be used for current RV surveys and Kepler mission to obtain a lower limit on η ⊕ , so that future flagship missions like TPF-C and Darwin are not undersized. Our model does not include the radiative effects of clouds; thus, the actual HZ boundaries may extend further in both directions than the estimates just given.
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“The new Kopparapu et al. (2013) habitable zone model recalculates the classic Kasting et al. (1993) habitable zone with updated model inputs, and its habitable zone extends from 0.99 to 1.70 AU.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“However, this study did not include the effects of clouds or circulation of moisture, either of which could stabilize a planet at the inner edge of the habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“In this updated conservative estimation, Earth is very near the inner edge of the current habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“The location of the habitable zone depends on how bright the star is (Kopparapu et al., 2013); for brighter stars, the habitable zone is shifted outward because planets must be farther away from these stars to maintain temperatures necessary for liquid water, and for dimmer stars, the habitable zone is shifted inward (Fig. 18).”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al., 2013
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Cites
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MethodThe HITRAN 2008 molecular spectroscopic database
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Habitable Zones around Main Sequence Stars
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“Rayleigh scattering by water was also considered by Kasting (1988); Kasting et al. (1993), but these authors used the scattering coefficient for air because the coefficient for H2O was not available, or at least not known to them.”
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Rothman, L. S., Gordon, I. E., Barber, R. J., Dothe, H., Gamache, R. R., Goldman, A. S., Perevalov, V. I., Tashkun, S. A., & Tennyson, J. (2010) · Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2010.05.001 · Cited by 2,296 · cited 1×
“It is a program to produce high-resolution spectrum of any gas mixture, in any thermodynamical conditions, from line-by-line (LBL) databases such as HITRAN 2008 (Rothman et al. 2009) and HITEMP 20104 (Rothman et al. 2010).”
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“As with the inner edge model, a more optimistic empirical limit on the OHZ can be estimated based on the observation that early Mars was warm enough for liquid water to flow on its surface (Pollack et al. 1987; Bibring et al. 2006).”
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BackgroundMethodPLANETARY CANDIDATES OBSERVED BY KEPLER . III. ANALYSIS OF THE FIRST 16 MONTHS OF DATA
Batalha, N. M., Rowe, J. F., Bryson, S. T., Barclay, T., Burke, C. J., Caldwell, D. A., Christiansen, J. L., Mullally, F., Thompson, S. E., Brown, T. M., et al. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/204/2/24 · Cited by 1,042
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Arnscheidt, C. W., Wordsworth, R., & Ding, F. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab2bf2 · Cited by 15
Truitt, A., Young, P. A., Walker, S. I., & Spacek, A. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab4e93 · Cited by 14
“This is especially true given the use of both 1D and 3D models (e.g. Kopparapu et al. 2013, Leconte et al. 2013).”
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Cukier, W., Kopparapu, R., Kane, S. R., Welsh, W. F., Wolf, E. T., Kostov, V. B., & Haqq-Misra, J. D. (2019) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/ab50cb · Cited by 15
“D radiative-convective, cloud-free climate model from the Kasting group, which has been updated recently (Kopparapu et al. 2013a, 2014).”
MethodSelf-citationHaqq‐Misra, J., Wolf, E. T., Welsh, W. F., Kopparapu, R., Kostov, V., & Kane, S. R. (2019) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2019je006222 · Cited by 15
“The circumstellar liquid water “habitable zone” has received broad attention for single-star systems (e.g., Abe et al., 2011; Kasting et al., 1993; Kopparapu et al., 2013, 2014), but terrestrial planets in binary systems may also be able to retain stable atmospheres with habitable surface…”
BackgroundSelf-citationPhotometric rotation periods for 107 M dwarfs from the APACHE survey
Giacobbe, P., Benedetto, M., Damasso, M., Sozzetti, A., Christille, J. M., Lattanzi, M. G., Calcidese, P., Carbognani, A., Barbato, D., Pinamonti, M., et al. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz3364 · Cited by 15
“…et al. 2016a; Dittmann et al. 2017; Suárez Mascareño et al. 2017a; Astudillo-Defru et al. © 2019 The Authors 2017b; Bonfils et al. 2018; Zechmeister et al. 2019), corresponds to orbital periods typically in the range of tens of days (e.g., Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014; Kopparapu 2018).”
BackgroundAtmospheric stability and collapse on tidally locked rocky planets
Auclair-Desrotour, P., & Heng, K. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202037513 · Cited by 15
“Many of these planets are located in the habitable zone of their host stars (e.g. Kopparapu et al. 2013), which is basically the region where the incident stellar flux and greenhouse effect enable them to sustain surface liquid water.”
BackgroundA Complex Life Habitable Zone Based On Lipid Solubility Theory
Ramirez, R. M. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-64436-z · Cited by 15
Self-citationThe Demographics of Exoplanets
Gaudi, B. S., Meyer, M. R., & Christiansen, J. L. (2021) · Institute of Physics eBooks · doi:10.1088/2514-3433/abfa8fch2 · Cited by 27
“[65] Ravi Kumar Kopparapu, Ramses Ramirez, James F.”
BackgroundLarge closed-field corona of WX Ursae Majoris evidenced from radio observations
Davis, I., Vedantham, H. K., Callingham, J. R., Shimwell, T. W., Vidotto, A. A., Zarka, P., Ray, T. P., & Drabent, A. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140772 · Cited by 15
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Benatti, S., Desidera, S., Damasso, M., Malavolta, L., Lanza, A. F., Biazzo, K., Bonomo, A. S., Claudi, R., Marzari, F., Poretti, E., et al. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629484 · Cited by 15
“Our results, reported in Table 5, are estimated for the classical early Mars and recent Venus criteria described in Kopparapu et al. (2013) for the theoretical inner (runaway greenhouse) and outer limits with 50% cloudiness (with H2O and CO2 clouds respectively) and the extreme theoretical limits,…”
BackgroundA COMPREHENSIVE CHARACTERIZATION OF THE 70 VIRGINIS PLANETARY SYSTEM
Kane, S. R., Boyajian, T. S., Henry, G. W., Feng, Y. K., Hinkel, N. R., Fischer, D. A., von Braun, K., Howard, A. W., & Wright, J. T. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/806/1/60 · Cited by 15
“…overstated since they not only affect the derived planetary properties but also the quantification of the Habitable Zone (HZ) (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014) and subsequent cal- skane@sfsu.edu 1 Department of Physics & Astronomy, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway…”
How to directly image a habitable planet around Alpha Centauri with a ~30-45cm space telescope
Belikov, R., Bendek, E., Thomas, S., Males, J., & Lozi, J. (2015) · SPIE Optical Engineering + Applications · doi:10.1117/12.2188732 · Cited by 33
“6” in stellocentric angle (see Table 1), ~3x wider than around any other FGKM star (where we used the “optimistic” habitable zones in [6]).”
MethodUsing HARPS-N to characterize the long-period planets in the PH-2 and Kepler-103 systems
Dubber, S., Mortier, A., Rice, K., Nava, C., Malavolta, L., Giles, H., Coffinet, A., Charbonneau, D., Vanderburg, A. M., Bonomo, A. S., et al. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2856 · Cited by 15
“Using the methods of Kopparapu et al. (2013) (specifically Figure 7), within the errors on M∗ and a, this planet lies just on the edge of the habitable zone for this type of star.”
MethodResultRoy, A., Halverson, S., Mahadevan, S., Stefánsson, G., Monson, A. J., Logsdon, S. E., Bender, C. F., Blake, C. H., Golub, E., Gupta, A. F., et al. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab781a · Cited by 15
“The field of radial velocity (RV) exoplanet detection is engaged in an ongoing battle for ever higher precision measurements, motivated by the urge to detect Earth-mass planets in the habitable zone (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPlanetary candidates transiting cool dwarf stars from campaigns 12 to 15 of K2
Castro-González, A., Díez-Alonso, E., Blanco, J. M., Livingston, J. H., de Leon, J. P., Gómez, S. L. S., González-Gutiérrez, C., Riesgo, F. G., Bonavera, L., Rodríguez, F. J. I., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2353 · Cited by 15
The best place and time to live in the Milky Way
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“From planetary atmosphere models, estimates have been made for the lower and upper limits of the insolation that can lead to a planet possessing liquid water (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundExoEarth yield landscape for future direct imaging space telescopes
Stark, C. C., Belikov, R., Bolcar, M. R., Cady, E., Crill, B. P., Ertel, S., Groff, T. D., Hildebrandt, S. R., Krist, J., Lisman, P. D., et al. (2019) · Journal of Astronomical Telescopes Instruments and Systems · doi:10.1117/1.jatis.5.2.024009 · Cited by 13
Figueira, P., Faria, J. P., Silva, A. M., Castro-González, A., da Silva, J. G., Sousa, S. G., Bossini, D., Osorio, M. R. Z., Balsalobre-Ruza, O., Lillo-Box, J., et al. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202553869 · Cited by 13
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“N 2 atmosphere could sustain liquid water on its surface ( Huang 1959; Hart 1979; Kasting et al. 1993; Williams & Kasting 1997; Underwood et al. 2003; Selsis et al. 2007; Spiegel et al. 2008; Abe et al. 2011; Kaltenegger & Sasselov 2011; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014 ) .”
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Space telescope design to directly image the habitable zone of Alpha Centauri
Bendek, E. A., Belikov, R., Lozi, J., Thomas, S. J., Males, J., Weston, S., & McElwain, M. (2015) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.2188999 · Cited by 13
“5-2 Earth size and using the extended habitable zone definition [5]).”
BackgroundMethodTidal Star-Planet Interactions: A Stellar and Planetary Perspective
Mathis, S. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_24 · Cited by 13
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“…as defined for the Solar System; the latter utilizes previous models of planetary atmospheres around different types of main-sequence stars given by Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014); (3) the provision of a combined formalism for the assessment of both S-type and P-type HZs based on detailed…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThermal and Orbital Evolution of Low-mass Exoplanets
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“…the boundaries of the habitable zone to additional parameters, such as the planetary mass, atmosphere and orbital eccentricity (e.g., Seager 2013; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014; Palubski et al. 2020), or restrict the range of plausible temperatures to allow for the formation of complex organics…”
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Clark, J., Clerté, M., Hinkel, N. R., Unterborn, C. T., Wittenmyer, R. A., Horner, J., Wright, D. J., Carter, B., Morton, T. D., Spina, L., et al. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1052 · Cited by 13
Sensitivity of the Roman Coronagraph Instrument to Exozodiacal Dust
Douglas, E. S., Debes, J. H., Mennesson, B. P., Nemati, B., Ashcraft, J. N., Ren, B. B., Stapelfeldt, K. R., Savransky, D., Lewis, N. K., & Macintosh, B. (2022) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/ac3f7b · Cited by 13
EOS-ESTM: a flexible climate model for habitable exoplanets
Biasiotti, L., Simonetti, P., Vladilo, G., Silva, L., Murante, G., Ivanovski, S. L., MARIS, M., Monai, S., Bisesi, E., von Hardenberg, J., et al. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1642 · Cited by 14
Beard, C., Robertson, P. M., Dai, F., Holcomb, R. J., Lubin, J., Murphy, J. M. A., Batalha, N. M., Blunt, S. C., Crossfield, I. J. M., Dressing, C. D., et al. (2024) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ad1330 · Cited by 13
STELLAR PARAMETERS FOR HD 69830, A NEARBY STAR WITH THREE NEPTUNE MASS PLANETS AND AN ASTEROID BELT
Tanner, A., Boyajian, T. S., von Braun, K., Kane, S. R., Brewer, J. M., Farrington, C. D., van Belle, G., Beichman, C., Fischer, D. A., ten Brummelaar, T. A., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/800/2/115 · Cited by 13
“To do this we employ the climate models outlined in Kasting et al. (1993) and Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014) and have been adopted by Kane & Gelino (2012) for the Habitable Zone Gallery8.”
MethodWhich Type of Planets do We Expect to Observe in the Habitable Zone?
Adibekyan, V., Figueira, P., & Santos, N. C. (2016) · Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres · doi:10.1007/s11084-016-9486-1 · Cited by 13
“Nowadays, several thousand of exoplanets and exoplanet candidates are announced, dozens of them being located in the so called habitable zone: a zone where exoplanets permitted to have liquid water on their solid surface (Cruz and Coontz, 2013; Kopparapu et al, 2013).”
BackgroundMethodTwo Suns in the Sky: The Kepler Circumbinary Planets
Welsh, W. F., & Orosz, J. A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_34 · Cited by 13
Lyα Observations of High Radial Velocity Low-mass Stars Ross 1044 and Ross 825
Schneider, A. C., Shkolnik, E. L., Barman, T. S., & Loyd, R. P. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab48de · Cited by 13
“The distance to the HZ for each star is calculated using their effective temperatures and radii listed in Table 4 and Equations (4) and (5) of Kopparapu et al. (2013a) and the updated coefficients in Kopparapu et al. (2013b).”
MethodTwo Planets Straddling the Habitable Zone of the Nearby K Dwarf Gl 414A
Dedrick, C. M., Fulton, B. J., Knutson, H. A., Howard, A. W., Beatty, T. G., Cargile, P. A., Gaudi, B. S., Hirsch, L. A., Kuhn, R. B., Lund, M. B., et al. (2021) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abd0ef · Cited by 13
TOI 122b and TOI 237b: Two Small Warm Planets Orbiting Inactive M Dwarfs Found by TESS
Ricker, G. R., Vanderspek, R. K., Seager, S., Goeke, R. F., Levine, A. M., & Osborn, H. P. (2020) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) · Cited by 13
Rapid formation of super-Earths around low-mass stars
Zawadzki, B., Carrera, D., & Ford, E. B. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab603 · Cited by 13
Direct Imaging in the Habitable Zone and the Problem of Orbital MotionPreprint
Males, J. R., Skemer, A. J. I., & Close, L. M. (2016) · Cited by 13
K2-HERMES II. Planet-candidate properties from K2 Campaigns 1-13
Wittenmyer, R. A., Clark, J., Sharma, S., Stello, D., Horner, J., Kane, S. R., Stevens, C. P., Wright, D. J., Spina, L., Čotar, K., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1528 · Cited by 12
“Finally, we calculated the HZ boundaries for each of the stars, using the formalism described by Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014).”
MethodEcocentrism and Biosphere Life Extension
Jebari, K., & Sandberg, A. (2022) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-022-00404-2 · Cited by 14
A Radiative-convective Model for Terrestrial Planets with Self-consistent Patchy Clouds
Windsor, J. D., Robinson, T. D., Kopparapu, R., Young, A. V., Trilling, D. E., & Llama, J. (2023) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/acbf2d · Cited by 12
Self-citationSurrounded by Giants: Habitable Zone Stability Within the HD 141399 System
Kane, S. R. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acfb01 · Cited by 12
Future trajectories of the Solar System: dynamical simulations of stellar encounters within 100 au
Raymond, S. N., Kaib, N. A., Selsis, F., & Bouy, H. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3604 · Cited by 12
Atmospheric Escape From Three Terrestrial Planets in the L 98-59 System
Fromont, E. F., Ahlers, J. P., do Amaral, L. N. R., Barnes, R., Gilbert, E. A., Quintana, E. V., Peacock, S., Barclay, T., & Youngblood, A. A. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad0e0e · Cited by 12
Wolf 327b: A new member of the pack of ultra-short-period super-Earths around M dwarfs
Murgas, F., Πάλλη, Ε., Orell-Miquel, J., Carleo, I., Peña-Moñino, L., Pérez-Torres, M. Á., Watkins, C. N., Jeffers, S. V., Azzaro, M., Barkaoui, K., et al. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348813 · Cited by 12
Role of Planetary Radius on Atmospheric Escape of Rocky Exoplanets
Chin, L., Dong, C., & Lingam, M. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad27d8 · Cited by 12
Radial velocity homogeneous analysis of M dwarfs observed with HARPS
Mignon, L., Delfosse, X., Bonfils, X., Meunier, N., Astudillo-Defru, N., Gaisné, G., Forveille, T., Bouchy, F., Curto, G. L., Udry, S., et al. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346570 · Cited by 12
Yang, Z., Tian, H., Zhu, Y., Xu, Y., 陳, L. 霖. C., & Sun, Z. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad2a44 · Cited by 12
The shaping of terrestrial planets by late accretions
Marchi, S., & Korenaga, J. (2025) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08970-8 · Cited by 12
“The habitability of a given rocky planet, whether within or outside the Solar System, depends critically on the nature of its atmosphere 187–189 .”
WHERE TO FIND HABITABLE “EARTHS” IN CIRCUMBINARY SYSTEMS
Liu, H.-G., Zhang, H., & Zhou, J. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/767/2/l38 · Cited by 12
“2 Considering these Earth-like planets with minimum masses 10M⊕, only few of them have a moderate equilibrium temperature and are considered as habitable planets (Kopparapu et al., 2013), e.g., HD40307 g (Tuomi et al., 2012) and GJ667C c (Delfosse et al., 2012).”
BackgroundTerrestrial planets and water delivery around low-mass stars
Dugaro, A., de Elía, G. C., Brunini, A., & Guilera, O. M. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201628355 · Cited by 12
Habitability in the Omega Centauri Cluster
Kane, S. R., & Deveny, S. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aad802 · Cited by 12
Observability of hydrogen-rich exospheres in Earth-like exoplanets
Santos, L. A. D., Bourrier, V., Ehrenreich, D., & Kameda, S. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833392 · Cited by 12
Transiting planet candidate from K2 with the longest period
Giles, H., Osborn, H. P., Blanco-Cuaresma, S., Lovis, C., Bayliss, D., Eggenberger, P., Cameron, A. C., Kristiansen, M. H., Turner, O., Bouchy, F., et al. (2018) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833569/pdf · Cited by 12
Konatham, S., Martín‐Torres, J., & Zorzano, M. (2020) · Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.2020.0148 · Cited by 12
“The boundaries of the HZ around a star are estimated by considering a cloud-free, one-dimensional climate model and imposing moist-greenhouse and greenhouse limits [69].”
BackgroundAbsolute densities, masses, and radii of the WASP-47 system determined dynamically
Almenara, J. M., Díaz, R. F., Bonfils, X., & Udry, S. (2016) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629770/pdf · Cited by 12
How Likely Are Snowball Episodes Near the Inner Edge of the Habitable Zone?
Wordsworth, R. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abf7c7 · Cited by 13
“1981), which is the basis for the ‘canonical’ definition of the habitable zone (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
Graham, R. J. (2021) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2020.2411 · Cited by 15
“H 2 O atmospheres can provide enough warming to maintain stable surface liquid water) is that at least some Earth-like exoplanets within the HZ of their stars can support a silicate weathering feedback like the Earth’s (Kasting et al. , 1988, 1993; Kopparapu et al. , 2013).”
Ding, F., & Wordsworth, R. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac4a5d · Cited by 12
The Ice Coverage of Earth-like Planets Orbiting FGK Stars
Wilhelm, C., Barnes, R., Deitrick, R., & Mellman, R. (2022) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ac3b61 · Cited by 12
SPECULOOS Exoplanet Search and Its Prototype on TRAPPIST
teams, T. S. A. T., Burdanov, A., Delrez, L., Gillon, M., & Jehin, E. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-30648-3_130-1 · Cited by 12
Effect of improved atmospheric opacities in modelling sub-Neptunes
MacKenzie, J., Grenfell, J. L., Baumeister, P., Tosi, N., Cabrera, J., & Rauer, H. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141784 · Cited by 12
Dietrich, J., Apai, D., Schlecker, M., Hardegree-Ullman, K. K., Rackham, B. V., Kurtovic, N. T., Molaverdikhani, K., Gabor, P., Henning, T. K., Chen, W.-P., et al. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acba0b · Cited by 12
Impact of M-dwarf stellar wind and photoevaporation on the atmospheric evolution of small planets
Modi, A., Estrela, R., & Válio, A. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2557 · Cited by 12
Photosynthetic potential of planets in 3 : 2 spin–orbit resonances
Brown, S. P., Mead, A., Forgan, D. H., Raven, J. A., & Cockell, C. S. (2014) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550414000068 · Cited by 12
“The HZ for a star with these parameters extends from 0.1 to 0.2 AU (Kopparapu et al. 2013), placing the planet close to the inner edge at periastron.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Habitability of Our Evolving Galaxy
Gowanlock, M., & Morrison, I. S. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811940-2.00007-1 · Cited by 16
“For instance, Lineweaver et al. (2004) find the location with the greatest probability of a star hosting a habitable planet to be between R = 7 − 9 kpc, Prantzos (2008) finds a maximum probability at R = 10 kpc, and Gowanlock et al.”
BackgroundPlanetary Interiors, Magnetic Fields, and Habitability
Driscoll, P. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_76 · Cited by 14
The energetic particle environment of a GJ 436 b-like planet
Rodgers-Lee, D., Rimmer, P. B., Vidotto, A. A., Louca, A., Taylor, A. M., Mesquita, A. L., Miguel, Y., Vénot, O., Helling, C., Barth, P., et al. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad900 · Cited by 12
An Energy Balance Model for Rapidly and Synchronously Rotating Terrestrial Planets
Haqq-Misra, J. D., & Hayworth, B. (2022) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ac49eb · Cited by 11
Habitability and sub glacial liquid water on planets of M-dwarf stars
Wandel, A. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-37487-9 · Cited by 11
Can comets deliver prebiotic molecules to rocky exoplanets?
Anslow, R. J., Bonsor, A., & Rimmer, P. B. (2023) · Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.2023.0434 · Cited by 18
“The semi-major axis of the inner planet is fixed in the centre of the star’s habitable zone, which is calculated using the stellar mass-luminosity relationship and habitable zone prescription from [48,49] respectively.”
MethodChapter 1: The Astrobiology Primer 3.0
Schaible, M. J., Szeinbaum, N., Bozdag, G. O., Chou, L., Grefenstette, N. M., Colón‐Santos, S. M., Rodriguez, L. E., Styczinski, M. J., Thweatt, J. L., Todd, Z. R., et al. (2024) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2021.0129 · Cited by 13
“The outer edge is set by cooling temperatures and the maximum greenhouse warming potential of a CO 2 -rich atmosphere (Kopparapu et al., 2013).”
Gliese 12 b, a temperate Earth-sized planet at 12 parsecs discovered with TESS and CHEOPS
Dholakia, S., Palethorpe, L., Venner, A., Mortier, A., Wilson, T. G., Huang, C. X., Rice, K., Eylen, V. V., Nabbie, E., Cloutier, R., et al. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae1152 · Cited by 11
Rocky planet formation in compact disks around M dwarfs
Sánchez, M. Á. M., van der Marel, N., Lambrechts, M., Mulders, G. D., & Guerra-Alvarado, O. M. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202450350 · Cited by 11
Constraints on the early luminosity history of the Sun: applications to the Faint Young Sun problem
Basinger, C., Pinsonneault, M. H., Bastelberger, S., Gaudi, B. S., & Domagal-Goldman, S. D. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae2280 · Cited by 12
Self-citationHic Sunt Dracones: Uncovering Dynamical Perturbers within the Habitable Zone
Kane, S. R., & Burt, J. (2024) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ad8a68 · Cited by 11
Leal, M. A. L., Tovar, D., Hernández, M. Á. D. P., Bonilla, M. A., Leone, G., Tchegliakova, N., Nieves, J. S., Molina, A., & Lobos, J. T. S. M. (2025) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550425000023 · Cited by 12
“…the fl ux of particles harmful to life coming from the Sun and the rest of the Galaxy, the evolution of the magnetic fi eld, to take them into account in the perspectives of comparison of terrestrial analogues (Kasting et al ., 1993; Lammer et al ., 2009; Kopparapu et al ., 2013; Lorenz, 2019).”
Nava-Sedeño, J. M., Ortiz-Cervantes, A., Segura, A., & Domagal-Goldman, S. D. (2016) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1435 · Cited by 11
“7.b in Kopparapu et al. , 2013).”
Self-citationMigrating Jupiter up to the habitable zone: Earth-like planet formation and water delivery
Darriba, L. A., de Elía, G. C., Guilera, O. M., & Brunini, A. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201630185 · Cited by 10
High-resolution Spectral Discriminants of Ocean Loss for M-dwarf Terrestrial Exoplanets
Leung, M., Meadows, V. S., & Lustig‐Yaeger, J. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab9012 · Cited by 11
“This could lead to a runaway green house resulting in the vaporization of any surface water (Kleine et al. 2009; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Kopparapu, R. K., Ramirez, R., Kasting, J. F., Eymet, V., Robinson, T. D., Mahadevan, S., Terrien, R. C., Domagal-Goldman, S., Meadows, V., & Deshpande, R.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Bordeaux (FR)
- NASA Astrobiology Institute (US)
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2013-02-26
- Volume
- 765
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 131
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2047751764
- Cited by
- 1,615
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2026: 89 · 2025: 115 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 125 · 2022: 110 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 157 · 2019: 177 · 2018: 149 · 2017: 109 · 2016: 115 · 2015: 83 · 2014: 95 · 2013: 55
- FWCI
- 61.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Oskar-Bordeaux (Universite de Bordeaux) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1126413, 1006676)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NNH05ZDA001C)
- Pennsylvania Space Grant Consortium
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities
- University of Pennsylvania
- University of Washington
- Pennsylvania State University
- NASA Astrobiology Institute
- NASA Headquarters
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Space Science and Extraterrestrial Life
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Space and Planetary Science › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Keywords
- habitable zone, main-sequence stars, terrestrial exoplanets, water loss, runaway greenhouse, stellar effective temperature, stellar flux, M dwarfs, K stars, F and G stars
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