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HABITABLE ZONES AROUND MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS: NEW ESTIMATES
Open accessAbstract
Identifying terrestrial planets in the habitable zones (HZs) of other stars is one of the primary goals of ongoing radial velocity (RV) and transit exoplanet surveys and proposed future space missions. Most current estimates of the boundaries of the HZ are based on one-dimensional (1D), cloud-free, climate model calculations by Kasting et al. However, this model used band models that were based on older HITRAN and HITEMP line-by-line databases. The inner edge of the HZ in the Kasting et al. model was determined by loss of water, and the outer edge was determined by the maximum greenhouse provided by a CO 2 atmosphere. A conservative estimate for the width of the HZ from this model in our solar system is 0.95–1.67 AU. Here an updated 1D radiative–convective, cloud-free climate model is used to obtain new estimates for HZ widths around F, G, K, and M stars. New H 2 O and CO 2 absorption coefficients, derived from the HITRAN 2008 and HITEMP 2010 line-by-line databases, are important improvements to the climate model. According to the new model, the water-loss (inner HZ) and maximum greenhouse (outer HZ) limits for our solar system are at 0.99 and 1.70 AU, respectively, suggesting that the present Earth lies near the inner edge. Additional calculations are performed for stars with effective temperatures between 2600 and 7200 K, and the results are presented in parametric form, making them easy to apply to actual stars. The new model indicates that, near the inner edge of the HZ, there is no clear distinction between runaway greenhouse and water-loss limits for stars with T eff ≲ 5000 K, which has implications for ongoing planet searches around K and M stars. To assess the potential habitability of extrasolar terrestrial planets, we propose using stellar flux incident on a planet rather than equilibrium temperature. This removes the dependence on planetary (Bond) albedo, which varies depending on the host star's spectral type. We suggest that conservative estimates of the HZ (water-loss and maximum greenhouse limits) should be used for current RV surveys and Kepler mission to obtain a lower limit on η ⊕ , so that future flagship missions like TPF-C and Darwin are not undersized. Our model does not include the radiative effects of clouds; thus, the actual HZ boundaries may extend further in both directions than the estimates just given.
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“The new Kopparapu et al. (2013) habitable zone model recalculates the classic Kasting et al. (1993) habitable zone with updated model inputs, and its habitable zone extends from 0.99 to 1.70 AU.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“However, this study did not include the effects of clouds or circulation of moisture, either of which could stabilize a planet at the inner edge of the habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“In this updated conservative estimation, Earth is very near the inner edge of the current habitable zone.”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al. (2013)
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“The location of the habitable zone depends on how bright the star is (Kopparapu et al., 2013); for brighter stars, the habitable zone is shifted outward because planets must be farther away from these stars to maintain temperatures necessary for liquid water, and for dimmer stars, the habitable zone is shifted inward (Fig. 18).”
From The Astrobiology Primer v2.0 (2016) · cites this paper as Kopparapu et al., 2013
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Cites
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MethodThe HITRAN 2008 molecular spectroscopic database
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“Rayleigh scattering by water was also considered by Kasting (1988); Kasting et al. (1993), but these authors used the scattering coefficient for air because the coefficient for H2O was not available, or at least not known to them.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationHITEMP, the high-temperature molecular spectroscopic database
Rothman, L. S., Gordon, I. E., Barber, R. J., Dothe, H., Gamache, R. R., Goldman, A. S., Perevalov, V. I., Tashkun, S. A., & Tennyson, J. (2010) · Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2010.05.001 · Cited by 2,296 · cited 1×
“It is a program to produce high-resolution spectrum of any gas mixture, in any thermodynamical conditions, from line-by-line (LBL) databases such as HITRAN 2008 (Rothman et al. 2009) and HITEMP 20104 (Rothman et al. 2010).”
BackgroundGlobal Mineralogical and Aqueous Mars History Derived from OMEGA/Mars Express Data
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“As with the inner edge model, a more optimistic empirical limit on the OHZ can be estimated based on the observation that early Mars was warm enough for liquid water to flow on its surface (Pollack et al. 1987; Bibring et al. 2006).”
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GAIA: Composition, formation and evolution of the Galaxy
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 1,001
Solar System Physics for Exoplanet Research
Horner, J., Kane, S. R., Marshall, J. P., Dalba, P. A., Holt, T. R., Wood, J., Maynard-Casely, H. E., Wittenmyer, R. A., Lykawka, P. S., Hill, M. L., et al. (2020) · Cited by 42
Pidhorodetska, D., Fauchez, T. J., Villanueva, G. L., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., & Kopparapu, R. (2020) · Maryland Shared Open Access Repository (USMAI Consortium) · doi:10.13016/m2mmhx-mukf · Cited by 43
Self-citationImpact of space weather on climate and habitability of terrestrial-type exoplanets
Airapetian, V., Gopalswamy, N., Grenfell, J. L., Gronoff, G., Güdel, M., Herbst, K., Henning, W. G., Jackman, C. H., Jin, M., Johnstone, C. P., et al. (2020) · Yokohama National University Repository (Yokohama National University) · Cited by 41
Self-citationBarclay, T., Quintana, E. V., Adams, F. C., Ciardi, D. R., Huber, D., Foreman-Mackey, D., Montet, B. T., & Caldwell, D. A. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/809/1/7 · Cited by 42
“(Kopparapu et al. 2013) published theoretical limiting incident flux to fall within a circumstellar habitable zone, we find that Kepler-296 Ae falls into the Kopparapu et al’s ‘optimistic’ habitable zone and Kepler-296 Af in their ‘conservative’ habitable zone.”
BackgroundStratosphere circulation on tidally locked ExoEarths
Carone, L., Keppens, R., Decin, L., & Henning, T. K. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2732 · Cited by 42
“However, TRAPPIST-1f and -1g may still be habitable if they have a thick CO2-dominated atmosphere (>1 bar and >5 bar, respectively) (Turbet et al. 2017; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundThe K Dwarf Advantage for Biosignatures on Directly Imaged Exoplanets
Arney, G. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab0651 · Cited by 50
Exploring the realm of scaled solar system analogues with HARPS
Barbato, D., Sozzetti, A., Desidera, S., Damasso, M., Bonomo, A. S., Giacobbe, P., Colombo, L. S., Lazzoni, C., Claudi, R., Gratton, R., et al. (2018) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832791/pdf · Cited by 42
CONSTRAINING THE RADIATION AND PLASMA ENVIRONMENT OF THE KEPLER CIRCUMBINARY HABITABLE-ZONE PLANETS
Zuluaga, J. I., Mason, P. A., & Cuartas-Restrepo, P. A. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/818/2/160 · Cited by 41
“Our approach, as others, is to use the models of Kasting et al. (1993), updated by Kopparapu et al. (2013) derived for single stars to estimate BHZ limits.”
MethodTHREE RED GIANTS WITH SUBSTELLAR-MASS COMPANIONS
Niedzielski, A., Wolszczan, A., Nowak, G., Adamów, M., Kowalik, K., Maciejewski, G., Deka-Szymankiewicz, B., & Adamczyk, M. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/803/1/1 · Cited by 41
Habitable zones with stable orbits for planets around binary systems
Jaime, L. G., Aguilar, L. A., & Pichardo, B. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1052 · Cited by 41
“In the present work we will use Kopparapu et al. (2013) definition of habitable zone around single stars and extend it to the case of binary stars.”
BackgroundMethodHabitability Models for Astrobiology
Méndez, A., Valentín, E. G. R., Schulze‐Makuch, D., Filiberto, J. R., Ramirez, R. M., Wood, T. E., Dávila, A. F., McKay, C. P., Ceballos, K. O., Jusino-Maldonado, M., et al. (2021) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2020.2342 · Cited by 43
“…1913; Lorenz, 2020) in his book Life on Other Planets, with refining definitions later on (Huang, 1959; Hart, 1978; Kasting et al., 1993; Underwood et al., 2003; Selsis et al., 2007; Kaltenegger and Sasselov, 2011; Kopparapu et al., 2013, 2014; Ramirez and Kaltenegger 2017, 2018; Ramirez, 2018).”
Self-citationTristan, I. I., Notsu, Y., Kowalski, A. F., Brown, A., Wisniewski, J. P., Osten, R. A., Vrijmoet, E. H., White, G. L., Carter, B., Grady, C. A., et al. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acc94f · Cited by 41
YARARA V2: Reaching sub-m s −1 precision over a decade using PCA on line-by-line radial velocities
Cretignier, M., Dumusque, X., Aigrain, S., & Pepe, F. A. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347232 · Cited by 41
Assessing circumbinary habitable zones using latitudinal energy balance modelling
Forgan, D. H. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1964 · Cited by 38
“…(e.g. Underwood, Jones & Sleep 2003; ⋆ E-mail: dhf@roe.ac.uk Selsis et al. 2007; Kaltenegger & Sasselov 2011), it should be noted that Kopparapu et al. (2013) have since returned to these calculations, updating the atmospheric absorption models andextending the range of stellar…”
BackgroundCOMPARATIVE HABITABILITY OF TRANSITING EXOPLANETS
Barnes, R., Meadows, V., & Evans, N. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/814/2/91 · Cited by 40
“Examination of H ′ and Scirc reveals the best candidates for habitability receive 60–90% of the Earth’s solar constant, which is about the middle of the classic HZ (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationSTRATOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES AND WATER LOSS FROM MOIST GREENHOUSE ATMOSPHERES OF EARTH-LIKE PLANETS
Kasting, J. F., Chen, H., & Kopparapu, R. K. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/813/1/l3 · Cited by 41
“D calculation (Kopparapu et al. 2013a,b) had placed this threshold at 0.99 astronomical units (AU), uncomfortably (and unrealistically) close to Earth’s present orbit.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationSurvival of habitable planets in unstable planetary systems
Carrera, D., Davies, M. B., & Johansen, A. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2218 · Cited by 41
“We also mark the conservative habitable zone with the updated values from (Kopparapu et al. 2013b).”
BackgroundInfluentialCloutier, R., Doyon, R., Bouchy, F., & Hébrard, G. (2018) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aacea9 · Cited by 41
“Potentially habitable planets are defined as either Earths or super-Earths with rp ≤ 2R⊕ and orbit within their host star’s habitable zone as defined by (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodExomoons in the Habitable Zones of M Dwarfs
Martínez‐Rodríguez, H., Caballero, J. A., Cifuentes, C., Piro, A. L., & Barnes, R. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab5640 · Cited by 41
“The exoplanets’ oceans might begin to evaporate and condense in the stratosphere at planetary equilibrium temperatures ≈ 320–340 K (“moistgreenhouse,” Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialEffect of mantle oxidation state and escape upon the evolution of Earth’s magma ocean atmosphere
Katyal, N., Ortenzi, G., Grenfell, J. L., Noack, L., Sohl, F., Godolt, M., Muñoz, A. G., Schreier, F., Wunderlich, F., & Rauer, H. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038779 · Cited by 39
Simultaneous Multiwavelength Flare Observations of EV Lacertae
Paudel, R. R., Barclay, T., Schlieder, J. E., Quintana, E. V., Gilbert, E. A., Vega, L. D., Youngblood, A. A., Silverstein, M. L., Osten, R. A., Tucker, M. A., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac1946 · Cited by 41
Ji, J., Li, H.-T., Zhang, J., Fang, L., Li, D., Wang, S., Cao, Y., Deng, L., Li, B., Xian, H., et al. (2022) · Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1088/1674-4527/ac77e4 · Cited by 40
Looveren, G. V., Güdel, M., Saikia, S. B., & Kislyakova, K. G. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348079 · Cited by 40
EXO-ZODI MODELING FOR THE LARGE BINOCULAR TELESCOPE INTERFEROMETER
Kennedy, G. M., Wyatt, M. C., Bailey, V. P., Bryden, G., Danchi, W. C., Defrère, D., Haniff, C., Hinz, P. M., Lebreton, J., Mennesson, B. P., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/216/2/23 · Cited by 40
“…Survey targets are chosen so that the LBTI is sensitive to dust in their habitable zone (Weinberger et al., submitted), so the dotte lines show the range of radii implied by a temperature range of 210-320K, a rough indication of the habitable zone location for the Sun (e.g. Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
IS THE PALE BLUE DOT UNIQUE? OPTIMIZED PHOTOMETRIC BANDS FOR IDENTIFYING EARTH-LIKE EXOPLANETS
Krissansen‐Totton, J., Schwieterman, E. W., Charnay, B., Arney, G., Robinson, T. D., Meadows, V., & Catling, D. C. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/817/1/31 · Cited by 38
Self-citationEyes on K2-3: A system of three likely sub-Neptunes characterized with HARPS-N and HARPS
Damasso, M., Bonomo, A. S., Astudillo-Defru, N., Bonfils, X., Malavolta, L., Sozzetti, A., Lopez, E., Zeng, L., Haywood, R. D., Irwin, J. M., et al. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732459 · Cited by 40
“According to the optimistic HZ boundaries derived by Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014), planet K2-3 d orbits close to the inner edge of the HZ of its host star.”
MethodThe Productivity of Oxygenic Photosynthesis around Cool, M Dwarf Stars
Lehmer, O., Catling, D. C., Parenteau, M. N., & Hoehler, T. M. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aac104 · Cited by 39
“As seen in Figure 3, TRAPPIST-1 has a temperature of only ∼2500 K and the three planets that fall within the HZ, as defined by Kopparapu et al. (2013), have incident fluxes of 0.662 S⊕, 0.382 S⊕, and 0.258 S⊕ (Gillon et al. 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialMineral dust increases the habitability of terrestrial planets but confounds biomarker detection
Boutle, I., Joshi, M., Lambert, F. H., Mayne, N. J., Lyster, D., Manners, J. C., Ridgway, R. J., & Kohary, K. I. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-16543-8 · Cited by 38
Yang, J., & Abbot, D. S. (2014) · Cited by 40
DISCRIMINATING BETWEEN CLOUDY, HAZY, AND CLEAR SKY EXOPLANETS USING REFRACTION
Misra, A. K., & Meadows, V. S. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/795/1/l14 · Cited by 39
“In the near future, E-ELT could be used to identify non-hazy potentially habitable planets, which have 180<Teq <260 K (Kopparapu et al. (2013), Ravi Kopparapu, private communication).”
BackgroundSelf-citationUsing the inclinations of Kepler systems to prioritize new Titius–Bode-based exoplanet predictions
Bovaird, T., Lineweaver, C. H., & Jacobsen, S. K. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv221 · Cited by 39
“…zones’, namely (1) the range of Teff between Mars and Venus (assuming an albedo of 0.3), displayed in Fig.14 as the green shaded region, (2) the Kopparapu et al. (2013) “optimistic” and (3) “conservative” habitable zones (“recent Venus” to “early Mars”, and “runaway greenhouse” to “maximum…”
InfluentialWestall, F., Höning, D., Avice, G., Gentry, D. M., Gerya, T., Gillmann, C., Izenberg, N. R., Way, M. J., & Wilson, C. (2023) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-023-00960-4 · Cited by 47
“…1972; Hart 1979; Gough 1981; Claire et al. 2012), Venus was located in the middle of the classical habitable zone around our sun (Kasting 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013), thus fueling speculations about the early habitability of the planet (Pollack 1971; Grinspoon and Bullock 2007; Way et al.…”
BackgroundWater condensation zones around main sequence stars
Turbet, M., Fauchez, T. J., Leconte, J., Bolmont, É., Chaverot, G., Forget, F., Millour, E., Selsis, F., Charnay, B., Ducrot, E., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347539 · Cited by 40
Earth-like habitats in planetary systems
Fritz, J., Bitsch, B., Kührt, E., Morbidelli, A., Tornow, C., Wünnemann, K., Fernandes, V. A., Grenfell, J. L., Rauer, H., Wagner, R., et al. (2014) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2014.03.003 · Cited by 38
“The Habitable Zone (HZ) is commonly defined as the distance of the habitable body to the central star (or multi star systems) where the stellar radiation allows for the presence of liquid water on the planet’s surface (Whewell, 1853; Wallace, 1903; Kasting et al., 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialNew Insights into Cosmic-Ray-induced Biosignature Chemistry in Earth-like Atmospheres
Scheucher, M., Grenfell, J. L., Wunderlich, F., Godolt, M., Schreier, F., & Rauer, H. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aacf03 · Cited by 42
Accounting for multiplicity in calculating eta Earth
Zink, J. K., & Hansen, B. (2019) · Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1246 · Cited by 38
“This region is known as the Habitable Zone (HZ hereafter; Huang 1959; Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThree Small Planets Transiting a Hyades Star
Livingston, J. H., Dai, F., Hirano, T., Gandolfi, D., Nowak, G., Endl, M., Velasco, S., Fukui, A., Narita, N., Prieto-Arranz, J., et al. (2018) · Kölner Universitäts PublikationsServer (Universität zu Köln) · Cited by 39
Gialluca, M. T., Robinson, T. D., Rugheimer, S., & Wunderlich, F. (2021) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/abf367 · Cited by 44
Self-citationThe Demographics of Kepler's Earths and Super-Earths into the Habitable Zone
Bergsten, G. J., Pascucci, I., Mulders, G. D., Fernandes, R. B., & Koskinen, T. (2022) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ac8fea · Cited by 38
Vaughan, S. R., Gebhard, T. D., Bott, K., Casewell, S. L., Cowan, N. B., Doelman, D. S., Kenworthy, M. A., Mazoyer, J., Millar‐Blanchaer, M. A., Trees, V., et al. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2127 · Cited by 38
Chemical conditions on Hycean worlds
Madhusudhan, N., Moses, J. I., Rigby, F., & Barrier, E. (2023) · Faraday Discussions · doi:10.1039/d3fd00075c · Cited by 42
O'Malley-James, J., Cockell, C., Greaves, J., & Raven, J. (2013) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s1473550413000426 · Cited by 33
“99 au (Kopparapu et al. 2013), corresponding to a threshold flux of 1.”
BackgroundInfluentialA POTENTIAL SUPER-VENUS IN THE KEPLER-69 SYSTEM
Kane, S., Barclay, T., & Gelino, D. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/770/2/l20 · Cited by 29
“As pointed out by Kopparapu et al. (2013), this approach is problematic since the albedo is wavelength dependent and may lead to discrepant values for the HZ boundaries.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAssessing the habitability of planets with Earth-like atmospheres with 1D and 3D climate modeling
Godolt, M., Grenfell, J. L., Kitzmann, D., Kunze, M., Langematz, U., Patzer, A. B. C., Rauer, H., & Stracke, B. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201628413 · Cited by 44
“The inner boundaries of the HZ from the 1D modeling study by Kopparapu et al. (2013) are the most conservative in the sense that present Earth is close to the edge of this HZ.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMaximized exoEarth candidate yields for starshades
Stark, C. C., Shaklan, S., Lisman, D., Cady, E., Savransky, D., Roberge, A., & Mandell, A. M. (2016) · Journal of Astronomical Telescopes Instruments and Systems · doi:10.1117/1.jatis.2.4.041204 · Cited by 38
Dynamics of atmospheres with a non-dilute condensible component
Pierrehumbert, R. T., & Ding, F. (2016) · Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.2016.0107 · Cited by 42
“3b in [40]), there would be another stable equilibrium state with Ts ∼ 400 K under our current insolation.”
BackgroundExo-Milankovitch Cycles. II. Climates of G-dwarf Planets in Dynamically Hot Systems
Deitrick, R., Barnes, R., Bitz, C., Fleming, D., Charnay, B., Meadows, V., Wilhelm, C., Armstrong, J., & Quinn, T. R. (2018) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aac214 · Cited by 38
“The HZ, as we discuss it here, is the range of stellar flux at which a planet with an Earth-like atmosphere can maintain liquid water on its surface (see Kasting et al. 1993; Selsis et al. 2007; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSulfate Aerosol Hazes and SO2 Gas as Constraints on Rocky Exoplanets’ Surface Liquid Water
Loftus, K., Wordsworth, R., & Morley, C. V. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab58cc · Cited by 42
“10M⊕) planets in the habitable zone (e.g., Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundHot Hydrogen Climates Near the Inner Edge of the Habitable Zone
Koll, D. D. B., & Cronin, T. W. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab30c4 · Cited by 38
Erosion of an exoplanetary atmosphere caused by stellar winds
Rodríguez-Mozos, J. M., & Moya, A. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935543 · Cited by 38
“D2 and D3 were estimated using the equations published by Kopparapu et al. (2013, 2014).”
MethodEffects of UV Stellar Spectral Uncertainty on the Chemistry of Terrestrial Atmospheres
Teal, D. J., Kempton, E. M.-R., Bastelberger, S., Youngblood, A. A., & Arney, G. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac4d99 · Cited by 38
Formation and evolution of the two 4/3 resonant giants planets in HD 200964
dos Santos, M. T., Correa-Otto, J. A., Michtchenko, T. A., & Ferraz‐Mello, S. (2014) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201424820 · Cited by 37
“For this, the boundaries of the HZ around our Sun and a MS star with the mass of M = 1.61 M were calculated following the approach given in Kopparapu et al. (2013), with the effective temperature and the luminosity of the star adopted at 7500 K and 6.4 L (Inglis 2003).”
MethodInfluentialCharacterising TOI-732 b and c: New insights into the M-dwarf radius and density valley
Bonfanti, A., Brady, M., Wilson, T. G., Venturini, J., Egger, J. A., Brandeker, A., Sousa, S. G., Lendl, M., Simon, A. E., Queloz, D. P., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348180 · Cited by 37
Henry, T. J., & Jao, W. (2024) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-052722-102740 · Cited by 37
TWO SMALL TEMPERATE PLANETS TRANSITING NEARBY M DWARFS IN K2 CAMPAIGNS 0 AND 1* † ‡
Schlieder, J. E., Crossfield, I. J. M., Petigura, E. A., Howard, A. W., Aller, K. M., Sinukoff, E., Isaacson, H. T., Fulton, B. J., Ciardi, D. R., Bonnefoy, M., et al. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/818/1/87 · Cited by 31
“Its estimated semi-major axis places it just within the inner edge of the star’s optimistic HZ (Kopparapu et al. 2014, 2013).”
BackgroundCONVECTION IN CONDENSIBLE-RICH ATMOSPHERES
Ding, F., & Pierrehumbert, R. T. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/822/1/24 · Cited by 37
“…which plays a key role in Earth’s climateand in the runaway water vapor greenhouse, which is central to the past climate evolution of Venus and also determines the inner edge of the habitable zone (Ingersoll 1969; Kasting 1988; Nakajima et al. 1992; Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundEFFECTS OF OBLIQUITY ON THE HABITABILITY OF EXOPLANETS AROUND M DWARFS
Wang, Y., Liu, Y., Tian, F., Yang, J., Ding, F., Zhou, L., & Hu, Y. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8205/823/1/l20 · Cited by 37
“Yang et al. (2013) showed that clouds could strongly stabilize the climate near the runaway greenhouse inner edge under synchronous rotation, and the runaway greenhouse inner edge could be pushed far closer to its parent star than previously estimated (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundWater in Extrasolar Planets and Implications for Habitability
Noack, L., Snellen, I. A. G., & Rauer, H. (2017) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-017-0413-1 · Cited by 36
“…for the adaption of the atmosphere to changing solar radiation, as used in the calculation of habitable zone boundaries (e.g. Hart 1979; Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013), includes the formation of carbonates to extract CO2 from the atmosphere to compensate for the increasing solar flux.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Ice Cap Zone: A Unique Habitable Zone for Ocean Worlds
Ramirez, R. M., & Levi, A. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty761 · Cited by 36
“onds to an S eff = 0.32 (ibid). M5, and M8 We compute the S eff values for the inner and outer edges of the classical HZ by using the standard formulation from our previous work stars (eqn. 11) (e.g. Kopparapu et al., 2013; Ramirez & Kaltenegger, 2017): The ice cap zone is even wider at the 4 * 3 * 2 S f S f ( n)…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe Impact of Stellar Distances on Habitable Zone Planets
Kane, S. R. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aad094 · Cited by 33
HAZMAT. V. The Ultraviolet and X-Ray Evolution of K Stars
Richey-Yowell, T., Shkolnik, E. L., Schneider, A. C., Osby, E., Barman, T., & Meadows, V. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aafa74 · Cited by 37
Self-citationColose, C. M., C, A. D. D. G., & Way, M. J. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab4131 · Cited by 37
“…thousands of extrasolar planets (Udry & Santos 2007; Borucki et al. 2011), a long lineage of investigations have quantified the range of orbital distances from a star where liquid water can be stable on a planet’s surface (e.g., Kasting et al. 1993; Selsis et al. 2007; Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
BackgroundThe Impact of Stripped Cores on the Frequency of Earth-size Planets in the Habitable Zone
Pascucci, I., Mulders, G. D., & Lopez, E. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab3dac · Cited by 37
The habitability of stagnant-lid Earths around dwarf stars
Godolt, M., Tosi, N., Stracke, B., Grenfell, J. L., Ruedas, T., Spohn, T., & Rauer, H. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834658 · Cited by 35
The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs
Luque, R., Nowak, G., Pallé, E., Kossakowski, D., Trifonov, T., Zechmeister, M., Béjar, V. J. S., Guillén, C. C., Tal-Or, L., Hidalgo, D., et al. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833423 · Cited by 36
“The planet candidate GJ 3779 b has a minimum mass Article number, page 4 of 15 of 8.0 ± 0.5 M⊕ orbiting at a semi-major axis of 0.026 au, much closer to the host star than the conservative habitable-zone limits (0.094–0.184 au, Kopparapu et al. 2013, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialYoshida, T., Terada, N., Ikoma, M., & Kuramoto, K. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac7be7 · Cited by 36
“The orbit of 0.02 au corresponds to the inner edge of the habitable zone during the main-sequence phase of such an M8 dwarf (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialA Second Earth-sized Planet in the Habitable Zone of the M Dwarf, TOI-700
Gilbert, E. A., Vanderburg, A. M., Rodriguez, J. E., Hord, B. J., Clement, M. S., Barclay, T., Quintana, E. V., Schlieder, J. E., Kane, S. R., Jenkins, J. M., et al. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acb599 · Cited by 36
Planet Detectability in the Alpha Centauri System
Zhao, L. L., Fischer, D., Brewer, J., Giguere, M., & Rojas-Ayala, B. (2017) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa9bea · Cited by 32
New inner boundaries of the habitable zones around M dwarfs
Bin, J., Tian, F., & Liu, L. (2018) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.04.003 · Cited by 36
The First Habitable-zone Earth-sized Planet from TESS. II. Spitzer Confirms TOI-700 d
(2020) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) · Cited by 36
Pozuelos, F. J., Suárez, J. C., de Elía, G. C., Berdiñas, Z. M., Bonfanti, A., Dugaro, A., Gillon, M., Jehin, E., Günther, M. N., Grootel, V. V., et al. (2020) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038047/pdf · Cited by 36
The Fundamental Connections between the Solar System and Exoplanetary Science
Kane, S. R., Arney, G., Byrne, P. K., Dalba, P. A., Desch, S. J., Horner, J., Izenberg, N. R., Mandt, K. E., Meadows, V. S., & Quick, L. C. (2021) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2020je006643 · Cited by 41
Self-citationTOI-1634 b: An Ultra-short-period Keystone Planet Sitting inside the M-dwarf Radius Valley
Cloutier, R., Charbonneau, D., Stassun, K. G., Murgas, F., Mortier, A., Massey, B., Lissauer, J. J., Latham, D. W., Irwin, J., Haywood, R. D., et al. (2021) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ac0157 · Cited by 35
On the Detection of Exomoons Transiting Isolated Planetary-mass Objects
Limbach, M., Vos, J., Winn, J., Heller, R., Mason, J., Schneider, A., & Dai, F. (2021) · Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac1e2d · Cited by 22
THE PSEUDO-ZODI PROBLEM FOR EDGE-ON PLANETARY SYSTEMS
Stark, C. C., Kuchner, M. J., & Lincowski, A. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/801/2/128 · Cited by 35
“For example, the blue curves in Figure 4 correspond to rout = 1.77 AU, the outer edge of the classical habitable zone (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialMagma Ocean Evolution at Arbitrary Redox State
Nicholls, H., Lichtenberg, T., Bower, D. J., & Pierrehumbert, R. T. (2024) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2024je008576 · Cited by 51
Hot Rocks Survey I: A possible shallow eclipse for LHS 1478 b
August, P. C., Buchhave, L. A., Diamond-Lowe, H., Mendonça, J. M., Gressier, A., Rathcke, A. D., Allen, N. H., Fortune, M., Jones, K., Valdés, E. A. M., et al. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452611 · Cited by 35
Heller, R., & Pudritz, R. E. (2015) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425487 · Cited by 35
Ballard, S. A., Charbonneau, D., Fressin, F., Torres, G., Irwin, J. M., Désert, J.-M., Newton, E. R., Mann, A. W., Ciardi, D. R., Crepp, J. R., et al. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/773/2/98 · Cited by 34
Absolute densities, masses, and radii of the WASP-47 system determined dynamically
Almenara, J. M., Díaz, R. F., Bonfils, X., & Udry, S. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629770 · Cited by 35
“The effective incident flux on WASP47 c is 0.640 ± 0.052 times the flux received by Earth, which would place it in the middle of the HZ (see Díaz et al. 2016; Kopparapu et al. 2013, Fig.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe contribution of the ARIEL space mission to the study of planetary formation
Turrini, D., Miguel, Y., Zingales, T., Piccialli, A., Helled, R., Vazan, A., Oliva, F., Sindoni, G., Panić, O., Leconte, J., et al. (2018) · Experimental Astronomy · doi:10.1007/s10686-017-9570-1 · Cited by 35
NGTS-11 b (TOI-1847 b): A Transiting Warm Saturn Recovered from a TESS Single-transit Event
Gill, S., Wheatley, P. J., Cooke, B. F., Jordán, A., Nielsen, L. D., Bayliss, D., Anderson, D. R., Vines, J. I., Lendl, M., Acton, J. S., et al. (2020) · Apollo (University of Cambridge) · doi:10.17863/cam.72693 · Cited by 35
The Exoplanet Population Observation Simulator. II -- Population Synthesis in the Era of Kepler
Mulders, G. D., Mordasini, C., Pascucci, I., Ciesla, F. J., Emsenhuber, A., & Apai, D. (2019) · Bern Open Repository and Information System (University of Bern) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1905.08804 · Cited by 35
Magma Ocean Evolution of the TRAPPIST-1 Planets
Barth, P., Carone, L., Barnes, R., Noack, L., Mollière, P., & Henning, T. K. (2021) · Refubium (Universitätsbibliothek der Freien Universität Berlin) · doi:10.17169/refubium-31613 · Cited by 35
The HD 260655 system: Two rocky worlds transiting a bright M dwarf at 10 pc
Luque, R., Fulton, B. J., Kunimoto, M., Amado, P. J., Gorrini, P., Dreizler, S., Hellier, C., Henry, G. W., Molaverdikhani, K., Morello, G., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243834 · Cited by 35
The SOPHIE search for northern extrasolar planets
Hébrard, G., Arnold, L., Forveille, T., Correia, A. C. M., Laskar, J., Bonfils, X., Boisse, I., Díaz, R. F., Hagelberg, J., Sahlmann, J., et al. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527585 · Cited by 34
“The habitable zone around a star could be defined as the area where the insolation level would be between 0.2 and 1.8 that of the Earth (e.g. Kopparapu et al. 2013; Jenkins et al. 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialA 1.55 R⊕ habitable-zone planet hosted by TOI-715, an M4 star near the ecliptic South Pole
Dransfield, G., Timmermans, M., Triaud, A. H. M. J., Dévora-Pajares, M., Aganze, C., Barkaoui, K., Burgasser, A. J., Collins, K. A., Cointepas, M., Ducrot, E., et al. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1439 · Cited by 37
DISCOVERY OF A TRANSITING PLANET NEAR THE SNOW-LINE
Kipping, D., Torres, G., Buchhave, L. A., Kenyon, S. J., Henze, C. E., Isaacson, H. T., Kolbl, R., Marcy, G. W., Bryson, S., Stassun, K. G., et al. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/795/1/25 · Cited by 33
“Comparing the incident insolation to the habitable-zone boundaries of Kopparapu et al. (2013), Kepler-421b lies firmly outside the maximum greenhouse outer edge.”
The Abundance of Atmospheric CO2 in Ocean Exoplanets: a Novel CO2 Deposition Mechanism
Levi, A., Sasselov, D., & Podolak, M. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa5cfe · Cited by 34
“Various investigations of this phenomenon place the threshold at about 8 bar of CO2 (Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Kitzmann et al. 2015).”
BackgroundGCM Simulations of Unstable Climates in the Habitable Zone
Paradise, A., & Kristen Menou, A. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa8b1c · Cited by 34
“Recent estimates of the habitable zone for Earth-like planets with modern Earth’s rotation rate place an inner edge at 0.99 au and an outer edge at 1.7 au (Kopparapu et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialSimulated Phase-dependent Spectra of Terrestrial Aquaplanets in M Dwarf Systems
Wolf, E. T., Kopparapu, R., & Haqq-Misra, J. D. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab184a · Cited by 33
Self-citationOstberg, C. M., & Kane, S. R. (2019) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab44b0 · Cited by 34
“The VZ is the region between the Runaway Greenhouse boundary defined by Kopparapu et al. (2013), and the distance from a star where the planet would receive 25 times the stellar flux received by the Earth.”
BackgroundInfluentialRuane, G., Wallace, J. K., Steeves, J., Prada, C. A. M., Seo, B.-J., Bendek, E. A., Coker, C. T., Chen, P., Crill, B. P., Jewell, J. B., et al. (2020) · Journal of Astronomical Telescopes Instruments and Systems · doi:10.1117/1.jatis.6.4.045005 · Cited by 34
Contemporary Liquid Water on Mars?
Wray, J. J. (2020) · Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences · doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-072420-071823 · Cited by 36
The SOPHIE search for northern extrasolar planets
Hobson, M. J., Díaz, R. F., Delfosse, X., Astudillo-Defru, N., Boisse, I., Bouchy, F., Bonfils, X., Forveille, T., Hara, N., Arnold, L., et al. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832732 · Cited by 34
Miniature Exoplanet Radial Velocity Array I: design, commissioning, and early photometric results
Swift, J. J., Bottom, M., Johnson, J. A., Wright, J. T., McCrady, N., Wittenmyer, R. A., Plavchan, P. P., Riddle, R., Muirhead, P. S., Herzig, E., et al. (2015) · doi:10.34657/8759 · Cited by 34
Synergies Between Venus & Exoplanetary Observations
Way, M. J., Ostberg, C. M., Foley, B. J., Gillmann, C., Höning, D., Lammer, H., O'Rourke, J. G., Persson, M., Plesa, A., Salvador, A., et al. (2023) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-023-00953-3 · Cited by 36
Lightning climatology of exoplanets and brown dwarfs guided by Solar system data
Hodosán, G., Helling, C., Asensio-Torres, R., Vorgul, I. Y., & Rimmer, P. B. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1571 · Cited by 37
“Some researchers apply the ”water loss” and ”maximum greenhouse” limits (e.g. Kasting et al. 1993; Kopparapu et al. 2013), others define the boundaries between ”recent Venus” and ”early Mars” limits (e.g. Kasting et al. 2014), and some 15 Lightning may occur anytime throughout a planet’s orbit, and…”
BackgroundUnterborn, C. T., Foley, B. J., Desch, S. J., Young, P. A., Vance, G., Chiffelle, L., & Kane, S. R. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac6596 · Cited by 36
Rimmer, P. B., Ferus, M., Waldmann, I. P., Knížek, A., Kalvaitis, D., Ivanek, O., Kubelík, P., Yurchenko, S. N., Burian, T., Dostál, J., et al. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab55e8 · Cited by 34
“…and Temperature Profile Used in This Research The initial and boundary conditions discussed above are applied to calculate the temperature profile using the ATMOS 1D Global Climate model (Kasting et al. 1984; Pavlov et al. 2000; Haqq-Misra et al. 2008; Kopparapu et al. 2013; Ramirez et al. 2014).”
Method
Metadata
- Authors
- Kopparapu, R. K., Ramirez, R., Kasting, J. F., Eymet, V., Robinson, T. D., Mahadevan, S., Terrien, R. C., Domagal-Goldman, S., Meadows, V., & Deshpande, R.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Bordeaux (FR)
- NASA Astrobiology Institute (US)
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2013-02-26
- Volume
- 765
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 131
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2047751764
- Cited by
- 1,615
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2026: 89 · 2025: 115 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 125 · 2022: 110 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 157 · 2019: 177 · 2018: 149 · 2017: 109 · 2016: 115 · 2015: 83 · 2014: 95 · 2013: 55
- FWCI
- 61.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Oskar-Bordeaux (Universite de Bordeaux) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1126413, 1006676)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NNH05ZDA001C)
- Pennsylvania Space Grant Consortium
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities
- University of Pennsylvania
- University of Washington
- Pennsylvania State University
- NASA Astrobiology Institute
- NASA Headquarters
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Space Science and Extraterrestrial Life
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Space and Planetary Science › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Keywords
- habitable zone, main-sequence stars, terrestrial exoplanets, water loss, runaway greenhouse, stellar effective temperature, stellar flux, M dwarfs, K stars, F and G stars
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