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Potential and costs of carbon dioxide removal by enhanced weathering of rocks
Open accessAbstract
The chemical weathering of rocks currently absorbs about 1.1 Gt CO 2 a −1 being mainly stored as bicarbonate in the ocean. An enhancement of this slow natural process could remove substantial amounts of CO 2 from the atmosphere, aiming to offset some unavoidable anthropogenic emissions in order to comply with the Paris Agreement, while at the same time it may decrease ocean acidification. We provide the first comprehensive assessment of economic costs, energy requirements, technical parameterization, and global and regional carbon removal potential. The crucial parameters defining this potential are the grain size and weathering rates. The main uncertainties about the potential relate to weathering rates and rock mass that can be integrated into the soil. The discussed results do not specifically address the enhancement of weathering through microbial processes, feedback of geogenic nutrient release, and bioturbation. We do not only assess dunite rock, predominantly bearing olivine (in the form of forsterite) as the mineral that has been previously proposed to be best suited for carbon removal, but focus also on basaltic rock to minimize potential negative side effects. Our results show that enhanced weathering is an option for carbon dioxide removal that could be competitive already at 60 US $ t −1 CO 2 removed for dunite, but only at 200 US $ t −1 CO 2 removed for basalt. The potential carbon removal on cropland areas could be as large as 95 Gt CO 2 a −1 for dunite and 4.9 Gt CO 2 a −1 for basalt. The best suited locations are warm and humid areas, particularly in India, Brazil, South-East Asia and China, where almost 75% of the global potential can be realized. This work presents a techno-economic assessment framework, which also allows for the incorporation of further processes.
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In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the investigation highlighted the dimensions that influence removal potential and cost, mainly being rock grain size and weathering rates.”
From Strategies for mitigation of climate change: a review (2020) · cites this paper as Strefler et al. 2018
In the citing paper
“The results are inline and support the estimates presented by Fuss et al. in terms of removal potential as well as costs.”
From Strategies for mitigation of climate change: a review (2020) · cites this paper as Strefler et al. 2018
In the citing paper
“Finally, the study indicated that climates that are warm and humid with lands that lack sufficient nutrients are the most appropriate areas for enhanced weathering activities (Strefler et al. 2018).”
From Strategies for mitigation of climate change: a review (2020) · cites this paper as Strefler et al. 2018
In the citing paper
“Rock grinding to reduce particle size and maximise CDR is the primary energy consuming operation in ERW 22,23,73 .”
From Potential for large-scale CO2 removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands (2020) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“For the USA, mining cost is 6.99 $ t -1 as obtained from prior analysis 22 .”
From Potential for large-scale CO2 removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands (2020) · cites this paper as [22]
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Self-citationSriwastava, P., Saini, V. K., Mathew, G., & Shukla, A. D. (2025) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2025.01.042 · Cited by 7
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“Still, the preference for smaller grain sizes must be weighed against the energy requirement of grinding, which steeply increases with decreasing grain sizes (Hangx and Spiers 2009, Strefler et al 2018, De Marco et al 2024).”
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Luczak, J. (2026) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Climate Change · doi:10.1002/wcc.70063 · Cited by 1
“…report that 88.1 GtCO 2 yr 1 could be removed from the atmosphere by spreading pulverized rock over a very large land area in the tropics, while Strefler et al. (2018) report that 95 GtCO 2 yr 1 could be removed if dunite was spread across croplands worldwide and 4.9 GtCO 2 yr 1 if basalt was…”
InfluentialCarbon Removal Using Geological Resources and Mine By-Products
Bullock, L., & Alcalde, J. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-87501-4_67-1 · Cited by 1
Vienne, A., Cox, T., Niron, H., Guenet, B., Poetra, R. P., Steinwidder, L., Vandenhove, C., & Vicca, S. (2026) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.6c00236 · Cited by 1
A machine learning approach for resource mapping analysis of greenhouse gas removal technologies
Asibor, J. O., Clough, P. T., Nabavi, S. A., & Manovic, V. M. (2023) · Energy and Climate Change · doi:10.1016/j.egycc.2023.100112 · Cited by 1
Afforestation and other land- and soil-based methods
Rackley, S. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819663-2.00018-6 · Cited by 1
Schaefer, D. A., Gui, H., & Xu, J. (2024) · Circular Agricultural Systems · doi:10.48130/cas-0024-0007 · Cited by 2
Assessment of land-based negative emissions options in Thailand
Suwannakarn, N., & Salam, P. A. (2024) · Carbon Management · doi:10.1080/17583004.2024.2372318 · Cited by 2
Effects of agronomical practices on potato growth, nutritional profile, and suitability for frying
Bruno, F., Hein, I., Jorat, M. E., Ledbetter, M., Harrower, B., Davies, B., Sturrock, K. R., Montague, G. A., Knott, M., McNamara, G., et al. (2025) · Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture · doi:10.1002/jsfa.14147 · Cited by 1
“30-32 Basic silicate rocks are abundant in the UK with a high concentration in Scotland.”
Microbiome manipulation and enhanced weathering influence tree growth in reforestation
Waring, B. G., Averill, C., Bidartondo, M. I., Suz, L. M., Beerling, D. J., Crowther, T. W., Jones, G., Lancastle, L., Epihov, D. Z., Clayton, K., et al. (2026) · Communications Sustainability · doi:10.1038/s44458-026-00103-0 · Cited by 1
Bertagni, M. B., Calabrese, S., Cipolla, G., Noto, L., & Porporato, A. M. (2024) · doi:10.22541/essoar.170559500.09183720/v1 · Cited by 1
Ultra-Efficient Electrolytic Ocean Carbon Removal Through Capacitive Decarbon ReactorsPreprint
Zhu, Y., Ou, Y., Fuhrman, J., Lin, M., Zuo, K., Zhao, H., & Zhang, Z. B. (2024) · ChemRxiv · doi:10.26434/chemrxiv-2024-1nrql
ATTRACTIVENESS OF CARBON REMOVAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONSUMERS IN GERMANY AND THE USA
Brysch, D. (2020) · Digital Commons - URI (University of Rhode Island) · doi:10.23860/thesis-brysch-dominik-2020
Rinder, T., & von Hagke, C. (2021) · doi:10.31223/x51g76
“Moreover, enhanced weathering of dunite and basalt is cost competitive with respect to other methods, ranging from 60 US $ per t CO2 for dunite to 200 US $ for basalt (Strefler et al., 2018).”
MethodBaumstark, L. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-ac2
Baumstark, L. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-ac1
Baumstark, L., Bauer, N., Benke, F., et al. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-cec1
Self-citationBaumstark, L. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-ac5
Topical Editor comment on gmd-2021-85
Baumstark, L., Bauer, N., Benke, F., et al. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-ec1
Self-citationBaumstark, L., Bauer, N., Benke, F., et al. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-ec2
Self-citationBaumstark, L. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-ac6
GAIA’s Futures in the Anthropocene: A Call for Evolutionary Leadership
Nelson, C. M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-79028-8_13
Baumstark, L., Bauer, N., Benke, F., et al. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-cec2
Self-citationMottershead, D. N. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818234-5.00217-0
Kanzaki, Y., Zhang, S., Planavsky, N. J., et al. (2022) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2022-8-rc1
Baumstark, L., Bauer, N., Benke, F., et al. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-rc2
Self-citationBaumstark, L. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-ac4
Baumstark, L., Bauer, N., Benke, F., et al. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-rc1
Self-citationBaumstark, L. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2021-85-ac3
Kanzaki, Y. (2022) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2022-8-ac1
Kanzaki, Y. (2022) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2022-8-ac2
Metadata
- Authors
- Strefler, J., Amann, T., Bauer, N., Kriegler, E., & Hartmann, J.
- Affiliations
- Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (DE)
- Universität Hamburg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Strefler, Jessica
- Amann, Thorben
- Venue
- Environmental Research Letters
- Publisher
- IOP Publishing
- Published
- 2018-03-01
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 034010
- ISSN
- 1748-9326 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2786586833
- Semantic Scholar
- 8ec3fc510d4553891bf8b6995cb1a7fbf850862e
- Cited by
- 372
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 54 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 52 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 8
- FWCI
- 10.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Environmental Research Letters (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- RENATE (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Publication Database PIK (Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK)) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- RENATE (cc-by)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (EXC177, SPP 1689 (CEMICS))
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › CO2 Sequestration and Geologic Interactions
- Physical Sciences › Chemical Engineering › Filtration and Separation › Carbon Dioxide Capture Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Climate Change and Geoengineering
- Keywords
- enhanced weathering, carbon dioxide removal, chemical weathering, dunite, basalt, olivine, forsterite, weathering rates, grain size, techno-economic analysis, energy requirements, cropland, ocean acidification, Paris Agreement
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