Internet-related behaviors and psychological distress among schoolchildren during the COVID-19 school hiatus
Open accessAbstract
= 2,026; mean [standard deviation] age = 10.71 years [1.07]; 1,011 [49.9 percent] girls) in Sichuan, China completed a cross-sectional online survey, and this study was approved by the ethics committee of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (IRB ref: HSEARS20190718001). The Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form, Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, and Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale were used to assess problematic gaming, social media use, and smartphone use. The Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale-21 was used to assess distress, and an item rated on a 0-10 scale was included to assess fear of being infected by COVID-19. Fear of being infected by COVID-19 was assessed because this could be a confounding variable in the association between psychological distress and screen time use. Increased time spent on gaming, social media, and smartphones was associated with greater problematic gaming, problematic social media use, problematic smartphone use, and psychological distress, but was not associated with fear of COVID-19 infection. Mediation analyses showed that problematic gaming, problematic social media use, and problematic smartphone use were significant mediators in the association between psychological distress and increased time spent on Internet-related activities during the COVID-19 outbreak period. Children who had psychological distress during COVID-19 outbreak might have spent longer time on Internet-related activities due to the school hiatus and problematic use of Internet-related activities. Parents/caregivers are recommended to monitor their children's use of Internet while encouraging children to engage in positive activities to ease the concern of negative psychological responses during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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- Findingown data§ Results
During the school hiatus, 38.9% of participants increased time spent using social media.
“During the school hiatus period, 23.7% of the participants increased their time spent in gaming; 38.9% increased time spent using social media; 49.9% increased time spent using smartphones; 49.0% increased time spent watching television; 53.9% increased time spent exercising; and 69.8% increased time spent reading/studying.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Results
During the school hiatus, 49.0% of participants increased time spent watching television.
“During the school hiatus period, 23.7% of the participants increased their time spent in gaming; 38.9% increased time spent using social media; 49.9% increased time spent using smartphones; 49.0% increased time spent watching television; 53.9% increased time spent exercising; and 69.8% increased time spent reading/studying.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Results
During the school hiatus, 49.9% of participants increased time spent using smartphones.
“During the school hiatus period, 23.7% of the participants increased their time spent in gaming; 38.9% increased time spent using social media; 49.9% increased time spent using smartphones; 49.0% increased time spent watching television; 53.9% increased time spent exercising; and 69.8% increased time spent reading/studying.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Results
During the school hiatus, 23.7% of participants increased time spent gaming.
“During the school hiatus period, 23.7% of the participants increased their time spent in gaming; 38.9% increased time spent using social media; 49.9% increased time spent using smartphones; 49.0% increased time spent watching television; 53.9% increased time spent exercising; and 69.8% increased time spent reading/studying.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Results
Problematic gaming significantly mediated the association between psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress) and increased gaming time during the school hiatus.
“The first three mediation analyses (Figure 1) showed that problematic gaming was a significant mediator in the association between psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress) and increased gaming time during the school hiatus.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data§ Discussion
Children reported fear of COVID-19 infection below 5 on a 0-10 scale.
“Moreover, the children reported that their fear of COVID-19 infection was less than 5 (out of 10).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ Discussion
Among participants who increased studying time, 45% reported less smartphone time.
“However, 45% of participants who spent increased time on studying reported less time spent on smartphones.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Discussion
Among participants who increased studying time, 58% reported less social media time.
“This appears to be true for gaming and social media use because the present study's results indicated that 75% of participants who spent increased time on studying reported less time spent gaming, and 58% of participants who spent increased time on studying reported less time spent on social media.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Abstract
Increased time spent on gaming, social media, and smartphones was associated with greater psychological distress.
“Increased time spent on gaming, social media, and smartphones was associated with greater problematic gaming, problematic social media use, problematic smartphone use, and psychological distress but was not associated with fear of COVID-19 infection.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Results
Problematic smartphone use significantly mediated the association between psychological distress and increased smartphone time during the school hiatus.
“The final three mediation analyses (Figure 3) showed that problematic smartphone use was a significant mediator in the association between psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress) and increased smartphone use time during the school hiatus.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Abstract
Increased time spent on gaming, social media, and smartphones was not associated with fear of COVID-19 infection.
“Increased time spent on gaming, social media, and smartphones was associated with greater problematic gaming, problematic social media use, problematic smartphone use, and psychological distress but was not associated with fear of COVID-19 infection.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Discussion
Fear of being infected by COVID-19 did not produce noticeable changes in increased time or problematic gaming, social media use, or smartphone use.
“However, the fear of being infected by COVID-19 did not impact on any noticeable changes concerning increased time or problematic gaming, problematic social media use and problematic smartphone use given the weak significant correlations with small effect sizes (i.e., between 0.117 and 0.137).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Results
Problematic social media use significantly mediated the association between psychological distress and increased social media time during the school hiatus.
“The next three mediation analyses (Figure 2) showed that problematic social media use was a significant mediator in the association between psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress) and increased social media use time during the school hiatus.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Results
Scores on the IGDS-SF9, BSMAS, SABAS, depression, anxiety, and stress scales were positively and significantly correlated, with correlations from moderate to high magnitude (r=0.355 to 0.798).
“Scores in IGDS-SF9, BSMAS, SABAS, depression, anxiety, and stress were positively and significantly correlated from moderate to high magnitude (r=0.355 to 0.798; p-values < 0.001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Results
During the school hiatus, 53.9% of participants increased time spent exercising.
“During the school hiatus period, 23.7% of the participants increased their time spent in gaming; 38.9% increased time spent using social media; 49.9% increased time spent using smartphones; 49.0% increased time spent watching television; 53.9% increased time spent exercising; and 69.8% increased time spent reading/studying.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Results
During the school hiatus, 69.8% of participants increased time spent reading or studying.
“During the school hiatus period, 23.7% of the participants increased their time spent in gaming; 38.9% increased time spent using social media; 49.9% increased time spent using smartphones; 49.0% increased time spent watching television; 53.9% increased time spent exercising; and 69.8% increased time spent reading/studying.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Results
The direct paths between psychological distress and screen time were very similar regardless of which mediator was included.
“However, the direct paths of the associations between psychological distress and screen time were very similar irrespective of the mediators included in the model (i.e., problematic gaming, problematic social media use, and problematic smartphone use).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Discussion
Among participants who increased studying time, 75% reported less gaming time.
“This appears to be true for gaming and social media use because the present study's results indicated that 75% of participants who spent increased time on studying reported less time spent gaming, and 58% of participants who spent increased time on studying reported less time spent on social media.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data§ Participants and procedure
Internal consistency of the Chinese IGDS-SF9 in this study was excellent (α=0.922).
“The internal consistency of the Chinese IGDS-SF9 in the present study was excellent (α=0.922).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Participants and procedure
The Chinese IGDS-SF9 used in this study was validated by Yam et al.
“Moreover, the Chinese IGDS-SF9 used in the present study was validated by Yam et al. 8”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Yam et al. 8
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ Participants and procedure
The Chinese SABAS used in this study was validated by Yam et al.
“Moreover, the Chinese SABAS used in the present study was validated by Yam et al. 8 .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Yam et al. 8
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductown data§ Participants and procedure
Internal consistency of the Chinese BSMAS in this study was very good (α=0.875).
“The internal consistency of the Chinese BSMAS in the present study was very good (α=0.875).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data§ Participants and procedure
Internal consistency of the Chinese SABAS in this study was very good (α=0.882).
“The internal consistency of the Chinese SABAS in the present study was very good (α=0.882).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Participants and procedure
The Chinese BSMAS used in this study was validated by Yam et al.
“Moreover, the Chinese BSMAS used in the present study was validated by Yam et al. 8 .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Yam et al. 8
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data§ Conclusion
School hiatus caused by the COVID-19 outbreak may cause psychological distress including depression, anxiety, and stress among primary schoolchildren.
“School hiatus caused by the COVID-19 outbreak may cause psychological distress including depression, anxiety, and stress among primary schoolchildren.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data§ Participants and procedure
The sample did not differ significantly from the entire population of the three schools in gender distribution.
“There were no significant differences in the gender distribution between the participants in the present sample and that of the entire population in the three schools (χ 2 [1]=0.25 and p=0.62) 4 .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Discussion
Elevated psychological distress during the COVID-19 outbreak may indirectly increase schoolchildren's screen time use as proposed by the I-PACE model.
“Because elevated psychological distress during the COVID-19 outbreak has been found in prior research 2 , such psychological distress may indirectly increase schoolchildren's screen time use as proposed by the I-PACE model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [2] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data§ Discussion
When children spend more time on studying/reading and exercise, they likely spend less time on internet-related activities.
“Most likely, when children spend more time on these activities, they spent less time on internet-related activities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data§ Abstract
Children with psychological distress during the COVID-19 outbreak might have spent longer on internet-related activities because of school hiatus and problematic use.
“Children who had psychological distress during COVID-19 outbreak might have spent longer time on internet-related activities due to school hiatus and problematic use of internet-related activities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Discussion
Excessive gaming and social media use could be coping strategies for self-regulation in response to stress, fear, uncertainty, and changing lifestyle.
“More specifically, excessive gaming and social media use could be coping strategies for self-regulation in response to the stress, fear, uncertainty, and changing lifestyle.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- May combine two claims. 12
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
May combine two claims.
Findingown data§ AbstractThe analyzed sample comprised 2026 primary schoolchildren from Sichuan, China, with a mean age of 10.71 years (SD 1.07) and 49.9% girls.
“Students (n=2026; mean [SD] age=10.71years [1.07]; 1011 [49.9%] girls) in Sichuan, China completed a cross-sectional online survey.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ AbstractIncreased time spent on gaming, social media, and smartphones was associated with greater problematic use of those respective activities.
“Increased time spent on gaming, social media, and smartphones was associated with greater problematic gaming, problematic social media use, problematic smartphone use, and psychological distress but was not associated with fear of COVID-19 infection.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ DiscussionChildren who increased time spent exercising showed less problematic internet-related activity use and less psychological distress during the school hiatus.
“In contrast, children who increased their time reading/studying or exercising showed less problematic use of internet-related activities and less psychological distress during school hiatus.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ DiscussionChildren who increased time spent reading or studying showed less problematic internet-related activity use and less psychological distress during the school hiatus.
“In contrast, children who increased their time reading/studying or exercising showed less problematic use of internet-related activities and less psychological distress during school hiatus.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ ResultsFear of COVID-19 infection had weak significant positive correlations with problematic gaming, problematic social media use, depression, anxiety, and stress.
“Fear of COVID-19 infection was weakly and significantly correlated with IGDS-SF9 (r=0.096),BSMAS (r=0.058),depression (r=0.137),anxiety (r=0.117),stress (r=0.124), and not significantly correlated to SABAS (r=0.043;Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown data§ ResultsFear of COVID-19 infection was not significantly correlated with problematic smartphone use.
“Fear of COVID-19 infection was weakly and significantly correlated with IGDS-SF9 (r=0.096),BSMAS (r=0.058),depression (r=0.137),anxiety (r=0.117),stress (r=0.124), and not significantly correlated to SABAS (r=0.043;Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown data§ Participants and procedureInternal consistency of the Chinese DASS-21 in this study was good (depression α=0.820; anxiety α=0.778; stress α=0.813).
“The internal consistency of the Chinese DASS-21 in the present study was good (α=0.820for depression subscale; 0.778 for anxiety subscale; and 0.813 for stress subscale).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ ResultsThe mediation effects were only partial, and the mediators might not substantially affect the direct relationship between psychological distress and screen time.
“Therefore, the mediation effects were only partial and the mediators might not substantially impact the direct effect between psychological distress and screen time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationreasoning§ DiscussionSome increased usage may be due to the need for online learning and social support while staying home for long periods.
“Some increased usage may be due to the need for online learning and getting social support on top of staying home for long periods of time.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoning§ DiscussionThe study cannot conclude whether participants lacked concern about COVID-19 because they lacked related experience.
“Without the information, the present study cannot conclude whether the present participants did not concern COVID-19 because of lacking related experience.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoning§ DiscussionThe study was cross-sectional without longitudinal follow-up, so cause-and-effect relationships cannot be confirmed.
“Second, the present study was cross-sectional without longitudinal follow-up to confirm possible cause-and-effect relationships.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown data§ DiscussionParticipants came from a single province in China, so findings may not fully generalize to other provinces or countries.
“First, participants in this study were recruited from a single province in China, and therefore the findings may not be fully generalized to other provinces countries undergoing the same public health crisis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ ConclusionThese negative impacts were associated with increased time on gaming, social media, and smartphone rather than fear of COVID-19, which may lead to problematic use.
“However, these negative impacts were associated with increased time on gaming and the use of social media and smartphone (rather than the fear of COVID-19) which may lead to problematic use of these internet-related activities.45”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown data§ Participants and procedureThe sample was significantly older than the entire population of the three schools.
“However, the participants in the present sample were significantly older than the entire population in the three schools (t=29.87 and p<.001) 4 .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoning§ Data analysisEffect sizes using Cohen's d were calculated because the large sample size could make negligible differences significant in t-tests.
“Given that the large sample size in the present study might make t-tests with a negligible difference significant, effect sizes (ESs) using Cohen's d were calculated to capture the difference magnitude: 0.2 indicates small; 0.5 is moderate; and 0.8 is large 40 ).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ DiscussionChildren may experience a sense of achievement when completing schoolwork or exercise, which may elevate satisfaction and produce positive psychological effects.
“Furthermore, children may have sense of achievement when they complete schoolwork or exercise, and this sense of achievement may subsequently elevate their satisfaction, resulting in positive psychological effects 42,43 .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown data§ Data analysisAll nine mediation models controlled for age, gender, and fear of COVID-19 infection.
“All nine models shared the same controlled variables of age, gender, and fear of COVID-19 infection.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone given§ DiscussionThe study did not ask whether family members or friends were at risk of death from COVID-19.
“Finally, the present study did not ask information regarding whether schoolchildren's family members or friends were at risk of death from COVID-19.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoning§ DiscussionOutcome measures relied on children's self-report, and the lack of objective measures is a limitation.
“Third, the outcome measures were based on children's self-report.Although the scales used have very good psychometric properties, 8,21,26- 39 the lack of objective measures (i.e., objective indices of time spent on internet-related behaviors and objective/structured diagnoses of depression and anxiety) is still a potential limitation of this study.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ DiscussionThe finding that children who increased gaming, social media, and smartphone time had higher problematic use may reflect insufficient parental supervision and support during school hiatus.
“More importantly, this finding may reflect that the supervision and support from parents/caregivers was not sufficient when children are experiencing school habitus and suggests the need for better coping strategies in such situations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
Participants answered the COVID-19 questions based on the moment they completed the survey.
“No time frame was provided in relation to the COVID-19 questions because it was assumed that participants would answer these based on the moment that they completed the survey.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The single 0-10 item adequately measures fear of being infected by COVID-19.
“an item rated on a 0-10 scale was included to assess fear of being infected by COVID-19.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The reported increases in time spent on activities are attributable to COVID-19.
“The COVID-19related items (answered yes/no) were (i)”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Social media use increased during the Covid-19 pandemic, including usage of a variety of social media platforms (e.g., Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok).
“In general, studies reported that social media use increased during the Covid-19 pandemic (36, 47, 56, 60, 62), including the usage of a variety of social media platforms (e.g., Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok).”
From Digital Media Use and Adolescents' Mental Health During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [62]
Young people who spent more time reading, studying, or exercising showed less increment in Internet-related activities and lower psychological distress.
“In addition, young people showed less increment in Internet-related activities and lower psychological distress when involved in structured activities (37) or spent more time reading, studying or exercising (62).”
From Digital Media Use and Adolescents' Mental Health During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [62]
Use of social media as a coping tool leads to negative emotions due to loss of control over online activities and search for more frequent gratifications online.
“That would end up in the experience of negative emotions due to the loss of control over online activities and the search for more frequent gratifications online (62).”
From Digital Media Use and Adolescents' Mental Health During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [62]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Fear correlations are attributed to the wrong outcomes
MinorThe discussion uses correlations of 0.117-0.137 to characterize fear's relationship with problematic internet-related use. The results instead give correlations of 0.096 for gaming, 0.058 for social media, and 0.043 for smartphone use; 0.117-0.137 pertains to psychological distress.
“the fear of being infected by COVID-19 did not impact on any noticeable changes concerning increased time or problematic gaming, problematic social media use and problematic smartphone use given the weak significant correlations with small effect sizes (i.e., between 0.117 and 0.137).”
“Fear of COVID-19 infection was weakly and significantly correlated with IGDS-SF9 (r=0.096),BSMAS (r=0.058),depression (r=0.137),anxiety (r=0.117),stress (r=0.124), and not significantly correlated to SABAS (r=0.043;Table 3).”
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“(56) found that problematic gaming, problematic social media use, and problematic smartphone use are important mediators of the association between psychological distress and increased time spent on Internet-related activities during the COVID-19 outbreak.”
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The Effect of Anxiety and Social Support on Adolescents in the Era of COVID-19
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11. Young People’s Online Engagement During and After the COVID-19 Pandemic
Klanjšek, R., Jagodić, G. K., & Potočnik, D. (2025) · doi:10.18690/um.ff.7.2025.11
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- Authors
- Chen, C.-Y., Chen, I.-H., Pakpour, A. H., Lin, C.-Y., & Griffiths, M. D.
- Affiliations
- Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HK)
- Krirk University (TH)
- Qazvin University of Medical Sciences (IR)
- Nottingham Trent University (GB)
- Venue
- Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2021-10-01
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 654-663
- ISSN
- 2152-2715 (ISSN-L)
- 2152-2723
- OpenAlex
- W3155259296
- Semantic Scholar
- 09c8445bcbf43e38415a7b1edaef4531a3df288a
- Cited by
- 105
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 18
- FWCI
- 28.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
- qums (Qazvin University of Medical Sciences) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Keywords
- psychological distress, elementary school students, gaming addiction, social media addiction, smartphone addiction, screen time, depression, anxiety, stress, fear of COVID-19 infection, mediation, children's internet use
- MeSH terms
- Psychological Distress, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Child, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Universities, Pandemics, Social Media
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