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Dietary saturated fats and their food sources in relation to the risk of coronary heart disease in women
Open accessAbstract
Background Metabolic studies suggest that saturated fatty acids differ in their effects on blood lipids.Objective The objective was to examine the associations between intakes of individual saturated fatty acids and their food sources in relation to the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD).Design This was a prospective cohort study of 80082 women in the Nurses' Health Study aged 34-59 y. Subjects had no known cardiovascular disease, cancer, hypercholesterolemia, or diabetes, and completed validated food-frequency questionnaires in 1980.Results During 14 y of follow-up, we documented 939 incident cases of major CHD events. In multivariate analyses in which age, smoking, and other covariates were controlled for, intakes of short- to medium-chain saturated fatty acids (4:0-10:0) were not significantly associated with the risk of CHD. In contrast, intakes of longer-chain saturated fatty acids (12:0-18:0) were each separately associated with a small increase in risk. The multivariate RR for a 1% energy increase from stearic acid was 1.19 (95% CI: 1.02, 1.37). The ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fat was strongly and inversely associated with CHD risk (multivariate RR for a comparison of the highest with the lowest deciles: 0.58; 95% CI: 0.41, 0.83; P for trend < 0.0001). Conversely, higher ratios of red meat to poultry and fish consumption and of high-fat to low-fat dairy consumption were associated with significantly greater risk.Conclusion A distinction between stearic acid and other saturated fats does not appear to be important in dietary advice to reduce CHD risk, in part because of the high correlation between stearic acid and other saturated fatty acids in typical diets.
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“Emerging evidence suggests that the effect of a saturated fat on CHD may depend on the type of fatty acid and the specific food source (i.e., dairy vs. meat) (160,161).”
From Food Consumption and its Impact on Cardiovascular Disease: Importance of Solutions Focused on the Globalized Food System (2015) · cites this paper as [161]
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“In contrast, data from the Nurses’ Health Study cohort illustrated that the associated RR of CHD varied according to the fat content of dairy foods with an estimated 20 % lower RR with low-fat dairy consumption (RR 0·80; 95 % CI 0·73, 0·87) compared with a 12 % higher RR with high-fat dairy consumption (RR 1·12; 95 %…”
Long-term yogurt consumption and risk of incident hypertension in adults
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“…perspective, the consumption of meat with a lower n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio promotes the suppressive effects of cardiovascular disease and arthritis on cancer [61] and induces arteriosclerosis [62], while a higher PUFA/SFA ratio in meat reduces the risk of developing coronary diseases [63].”
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“Dietary guidelines recommend consumption of low fat dairy food to reduce intake of long chain fatty acids like myristic and palmitic acid that are associated with increased cardiovascular risk [31], and stearic acid that is associated with reduced HDL cholesterol [32].”
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“In order to represent long-term diet and minimize random within-person variability, we used the cumulative averages of dairy fat intake from the baseline questionnaire to the censoring events (12).”
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“For instance, mediumchain SFA (MCFA) have been shown not to increase blood cholesterol concentrations in human subjects((8)).”
BackgroundRed meat consumption and metabolic syndrome in the Costa Rica Heart Study
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“Regarding other physiological parameters, epidemiological studies have also shown that intakes of short to medium-chain saturated fatty acids were not significantly associated with the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) [16].”
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“As evidenced by the Nurses’ Health Study [11], higher consumption of poultry meat was related to a lower risk of coronary heart disease in women when compared to higher consumption of red meat.”
Markers of a plant-based diet relate to memory and executive function in older adults
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“Importantly, the primary source of saturated fat in the Western diet is animal products such as red meat and dairy [59].”
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Chung, H.-K., Cho, Y., Ju, H., Oh, K., Seo, W., & Shin, M. (2015) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2015.09.007 · Cited by 30
“Previous results have suggested that each SFAhas different food sources [38] and contrary effects on CVD according to chain length [39,40].”
BackgroundResultTalpur, F. N., Bhanger, M. I., & Sherazi, S. T. H. (2008) · Meat Science · doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2008.03.028 · Cited by 30
Candidate gene marker associations with fatty acid profiles in heavy pigs
Renaville, B., Prandi, A., Fan, B., Sepulcri, A., Rothschild, M. F., & Piasentier, E. (2012) · Meat Science · doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.11.019 · Cited by 30
Cantwell, M. M., Gibney, M. J., Cronin, D. A., Younger, K., O'Neill, J. P., Hogan, L., & Flynn, M. (2005) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1079/phn2004668 · Cited by 30
Dietary fats, marbling and human health
Baghurst, K. (2004) · Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture · doi:10.1071/ea02140 · Cited by 34
Mexis, S. F., Riganakos, K. A., & Kontominas, M. G. (2010) · Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture · doi:10.1002/jsfa.4225 · Cited by 29
Hydrogenation of Cottonseed Oil with Nickel, Palladium and Platinum Catalysts
Cheng, H. N., Dowd, M., Easson, M. W., & Condon, B. (2012) · Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society · doi:10.1007/s11746-012-2036-8 · Cited by 22
“Research has shown that diets high in saturated fats increase low-density lipoproteins, which tend to promote the deposition of cholesterol on the walls of blood vessels [11, 12].”
BackgroundTotal Fat Intake Is Associated with Decreased Mortality in Japanese Men but Not in Women
Nagata, C., Nakamura, K., Wada, K., Oba, S., Tsuji, M., Tamai, Y., & Kawachi, T. (2012) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.112.161661 · Cited by 29
Cornell, K., Alam, M., Lyden, E. R., Wood, L. G., LeVan, T. D., Nordgren, T. M., Bailey, K. L., & Hanson, C. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11020317 · Cited by 29
“Similar findings were reported in another analysis of the Nurses’ Health Study, which found that intake of major medium-long chain SFAs (including 12:0, 14:0, 16:0, and 18:0) were associated with an elevated risk of coronary heart disease, whereas the sum of shorter chain fatty acids, including butyric acid (4:0), cap…”
ResultMedium-chain fatty acids lower postprandial lipemia: A randomized crossover trial
Panth, N., Dias, C. B., Wynne, K., Singh, H., & Garg, M. L. (2019) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2019.02.008 · Cited by 29
Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) as a novel forage and feed source: A review
Jamshidi, A. M., Amato, M., Ahmadi, A., Bochicchio, R., & Rossi, R. (2019) · Italian Journal of Agronomy · doi:10.4081/ija.2019.1297 · Cited by 33
“profile of milk and cheese by increasing PUFA context, as it is well recognised that saturated FA are commonly associated to an increased risk of cardiovascular system failure (Hu et al., 1999).”
BackgroundSheehy, T., & Sharma, S. (2011) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114511001395 · Cited by 28
“Although the polyunsaturated:saturated ratio has been shown to be strongly and inversely related to CHD risk in adults((66)), the WHO has not made any recommendations; however, the UK Department of Health recommended that it should be between 0·23 and 0·45((67)).”
BackgroundThe effect of feeding with hemp and Camelina cakes on the fatty acid profile of duck muscles
Juodka, R., Juška, R., Juškienė, V., Leikus, R., Stankevičienė, D., & Nainienė, R. (2018) · Archives animal breeding/Archiv für Tierzucht · doi:10.5194/aab-61-293-2018 · Cited by 28
“Some of them, like saturated fatty acids (SFAs), might boost the development of various cancers and coronary heart diseases, whereas others might act as a preventive measure or are necessary for the proper functioning of the organism (Hu et al., 1999; Gogus and Smith, 2010).”
BackgroundMatthys, C., Henauw, S. D., Bellemans, M., Maeyer, M. D., & Backer, G. D. (2006) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1079/bjn20051600 · Cited by 28
“However, this issue has been debated in the literature and it does not appear to be important nor feasible to make a distinction between individual SFA in dietary advice to reduce CVD risk, because of the high correlation between the different SFA (Hu et al. 1999).”
BackgroundSidorkiewicz, M. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16223937 · Cited by 30
“Although SFAs are essential for human life [7,8], they have also been identified as a critical risk factor for cardiovascular diseases [9].”
An Update on the Cardiovascular Pleiotropic Effects of Milk and Milk Products
Chrysant, S. G., & Chrysant, G. S. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Hypertension · doi:10.1111/jch.12110 · Cited by 27
Predictors of functional dairy product consumption among Iranian consumers
Moodi, M., Salmani, F., Norozi, E., & Zeinali, T. (2021) · International Dairy Journal · doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2021.105061 · Cited by 27
Dairy consumption in adults in China: a systematic review
Yang, S., Bhargava, N., O’Connor, A., Gibney, E. R., & Feeney, E. L. (2023) · BMC Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s40795-023-00781-2 · Cited by 27
“Much of this concern is related to the saturated fatty acid (SFA) content, present in dairy products [22], known to be related to the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) [23].”
BackgroundPanagiotakos, D. B., Bountziouka, V. P., Zeimbekis, A., Vlachou, I., & Polychronopoulos, E. (2007) · Journal of Medicinal Food · doi:10.1089/jmf.2007.414 · Cited by 27
Genetic parameter estimation for major milk fatty acids in Alpine and Saanen primiparous goats
Maroteau, C., Palhière, I., Larroque, H., Clément, V., Ferrand, M., Tosser‐Klopp, G., & Rupp, R. (2014) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2013-7328 · Cited by 27
Costa, A. G. V., Priore, S. E., Sabarense, C. M., & Franceschini, S. D. C. C. (2006) · Revista de Nutrição · doi:10.1590/s1415-52732006000500011 · Cited by 27
“Block & Hartman(30) relatam que os estudos mostram uma correlação entre as repetições de QFCA na ordem de 0,5 a 0,8; porém esses valores não são para nutrientes específicos e, segundo López(29), os períodos de estudo podem oscilar de um a vários anos, como ocorre no estudo de Hu et al.(11), com um intervalo de um ano…”
BackgroundImproving the sensory quality, shelf-life and functionality of milk
Kelly, P. M., Woonton, B. W., & Smithers, G. W. (2009) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1533/9781845695569.2.170 · Cited by 24
O’Neil, C. E., Zanovec, M. T., Keast, D. R., Fulgoni, V. L. I., & Nicklas, T. A. (2010) · Meat Science · doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2010.10.020 · Cited by 26
He, M. L., Wang, Y., You, J. S., Mir, P. S., & McAllister, T. A. (2008) · Lipids · doi:10.1007/s11745-008-3256-4 · Cited by 26
“Diets high in saturated fatty acids may be correlated with an increased incidence of coronary heart disease [35].”
BackgroundNutrient Signaling: Evolutionary Origins of the Immune-Modulating Effects of Dietary Fat
Alcock, J., Franklin, M. L., & Kuzawa, C. W. (2012) · The Quarterly Review of Biology · doi:10.1086/666828 · Cited by 26
“The numeral following the colon indicates the number of double bonds in the fatty acid (degree of unsaturation). acids affect inflammatory gene expression in humans by regulating transcription factors such as nuclear factor kappa B (NFB) or peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR).”
BackgroundA Novel Fatty Acid Profile Index--the Lipophilic Index--and Risk of Myocardial Infarction
Toledo, E., Campos, H., Ding, E. L., Wu, H., Hu, F. B., Sun, Q., & Baylín, A. (2013) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kws476 · Cited by 26
“(2) observed that dietary intake of longchain SFA but not short- to medium-chain SFA was associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease in the Nurses’ Health Study.”
BackgroundEbbeling, C. B., Pearson, M. N., Sorensen, G., Levine, R. A., Hébert, J. R., Salkeld, J. A., & Peterson, K. E. (2007) · Health Promotion Practice · doi:10.1177/1524839905278930 · Cited by 27
Konar, N., Toker, Ö. S., Pirouzian, H. R., Oba, Ş., Polat, D. G., Palabıyık, İ., Poyrazoğlu, E. S., & Sağdıç, O. (2018) · Sugar Tech · doi:10.1007/s12355-018-0611-5 · Cited by 26
“Evidence from epidemiological studies suggests that fatty acid profile directly affects the human health (Hu et al. 1999; López-Huertas 2010; Solfrizzi et al. 2005).”
BackgroundNutritional assessment and counseling for prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease.
Olendzki, B. C., Speed, C., & Domino, F. J. (2006) · PubMed · Cited by 26
Metadata
- Authors
- Hu, F. B., Stampfer, M. J., Manson, J. E., Ascherio, A., Colditz, G. A., Speizer, F. E., Hennekens, C. H., & Willett, W. C.
- Affiliations
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hu, Frank B
- ORCID
- Venue
- The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1999-12
- Volume
- 70
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1001-1008
- ISSN
- 0002-9165 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2150396523
- Cited by
- 661
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 29
- FWCI
- 9.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL24074, HL34594, R01HL034594)
- National Cancer Institute (CA-40356)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Health and Risk Factors
- Keywords
- saturated fatty acids, coronary artery disease, women, stearic acid, long-chain saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated to saturated fat ratio, dietary fat intake, food sources, red meat consumption, milk fat, Nurses' Health Study
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Coronary Disease, Dairy Products, Dietary Fats, Fatty Acids, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Meat, Middle Aged, Prospective Studies, Surveys and Questionnaires, Risk Factors, United States, Cohort Studies, Multivariate Analysis, Women's Health
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