The impact of starchy food structure on postprandial glycemic response and appetite: a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized crossover trials
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Starchy foods can have a profound effect on metabolism. The structural properties of starchy foods can affect their digestibility and postprandial metabolic responses, which in the long term may be associated with the risk of type 2 diabetes and obesity. OBJECTIVES: This systematic review sought to evaluate the clinical evidence regarding the impact of the microstructures within starchy foods on postprandial glucose and insulin responses alongside appetite regulation. METHODS: A systematic search was performed in the PUBMED, Ovid Medicine, EMBASE, and Google Scholar databases for data published up to 18 January 2021. Data were extracted by 3 independent reviewers from randomized crossover trials (RCTs) that investigated the effect of microstructural factors on postprandial glucose, insulin, appetite-regulating hormone responses, and subjective satiety scores in healthy participants. RESULTS: We identified 745 potential articles, and 25 RCTs (n = 369 participants) met our inclusion criteria: 6 evaluated the amylose-to-amylopectin ratio, 6 evaluated the degree of starch gelatinization, 2 evaluated the degree of starch retrogradation, 1 studied starch-protein interactions, and 12 investigated cell and tissue structures. Meta-analyses showed that significant reductions in postprandial glucose and insulin levels was caused by starch with a high amylose content [standardized mean difference (SMD) = -0.64 mmol/L*min (95% CI: -0.83 to -0.46) and SMD = -0.81 pmol/L*min (95% CI: -1.07 to -0.55), respectively], less-gelatinized starch [SMD = -0.54 mmol/L*min (95% CI: -0.75 to -0.34) and SMD = -0.48 pmol/L*min (95% CI: -0.75 to -0.21), respectively], retrograded starch (for glucose incremental AUC; SMD = -0.46 pmol/L*min; 95% CI: -0.80 to -0.12), and intact and large particles [SMD = -0.43 mmol/L*min (95% CI: -0.58 to -0.28) and SMD = -0.63 pmol/L*min (95% CI: -0.86 to -0.40), respectively]. All analyses showed minor or moderate heterogeneity (I2 < 50%). Sufficient evidence was not found to suggest how these structural factors influence appetite. CONCLUSIONS: The manipulation of microstructures in starchy food may be an effective way to improve postprandial glycemia and insulinemia in the healthy population. The protocol for this systematic review and meta-analysis was registered in the international prospective register of systematic reviews (PROSPERO) as CRD42020190873.
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Two meals containing the same amount of carbohydrate can elicit different glycemic responses because of differences in food structure, processing, starch fractions, and non-carbohydrate components.
“two meals containing the same amount of carbohydrate can elicit different glycemic responses because of differences in food structure, processing, starch fractions (rapidly available vs. slowly available), and the effect of non-carbohydrate components (fat, protein, fiber) on gastric emptying and intestinal digestion [4,5,6,7].”
From Does Resistant Starch Formed by Cooling Pasta Decrease the Postprandial Glycemic Response in Type 1 Diabetes? A Randomized Single-Blind Crossover Study (2026) · cites this paper as [4]
The Discussion (Overall summary and Relevance of this systematic review; page unavailable) says starchy foods with similar nutrient composition can produce different glycemic responses because of structure, processing, and starch-related factors. It also names dietary fiber as a possible contributor to variation. The paper does not establish the sentence’s further claim that fat, protein, and fiber alter glycemic responses through effects on gastric emptying and intestinal digestion. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMatching insulin action to the time course of glucose appearance after meals remains challenging, particularly with starchy foods.
“matching insulin action to the time course of glucose appearance after meals remains challenging, particularly with starchy foods [3,4].”
From Does Resistant Starch Formed by Cooling Pasta Decrease the Postprandial Glycemic Response in Type 1 Diabetes? A Randomized Single-Blind Crossover Study (2026) · cites this paper as [4]
The Introduction (page unavailable) says the rate of starch digestion affects postprandial glucose responses, and the Discussion, “Food structure and glucose and insulin response” (page unavailable), links digestion rate to both glucose and insulin responses. These passages support the relevance of starchy foods, but they do not say that matching insulin action to the timing of glucose appearance is challenging. (LLM, conf=0.84)
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The Effects of Soluble Dietary Fibers on Glycemic Response: An Overview and Futures Perspectives
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“the postprandial increase in glycemia [5].”
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“Variations in the starch content and structure are known to influence glucose and insulin responses [39].”
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“significantly lower postprandial glucose in individuals with T2D or prediabetes, similar to what is observed in healthy subjects (28, 33).”
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“In addition, the high amylose content also a certain amount of energy is required to gelatinize the by Cai et al. [48] showed that less-gelatinized rice starch in the insulin incremental area under the curve (iAUC), index.”
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“Peptides derived from dietary protein sourced from animals, marine life, insects, and plants, are highly favorable in terms of digestion, absorption, excretion, and lack of adverse effects [15–19].”
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“The glycaemic response to starch also depends on the degree of starch gelatinization [50].”
BackgroundCai, M., Tejpal, S., Tashkova, M., Ryden, P., Pérez‐Moral, N., Saha, S., García‐Pérez, I., Serrano-Contreras, J. I., Wist, J., Holmes, E. C., et al. (2025) · Nature Metabolism · doi:10.1038/s42255-025-01309-7 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“…one key aspect that has been largely overlooked so far is the role of food structure in regulating the extent to which these macro-nutrients are released into the intestinal lumen and absorbed by the body, which has an impact on postprandial metabolism, gut hormone release and caloric value 4–6 .”
Self-citationThe impact of starch composition and gluten content on noodle texture and starch digestibility
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Hallmarks of Appetite: A Comprehensive Review of Hunger, Appetite, Satiation, and Satiety
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“Regarding starches, although some works have been shown that resistant starch may reduce appetite [80] a consensus is still lacking [81].”
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Manipulating starch crystalline structure for controlled digestibility and glycemic response
Zhu, R., Li, X., Ren, J., Wang, P., Wang, R., Guo, J., He, J., Guo, J., Liu, S., Ren, F., et al. (2025) · Carbohydrate Polymers · doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2025.124662 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Reducing starch digestibility of white rice by structuring with hydrocolloids
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Salivary α-Amylase as a Metabolic Biomarker: Analytical Tools, Challenges, and Clinical Perspectives
Erta, G., Gersone, G., Jurka, A., & Tretjakovs, P. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26157365 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…hyperinsulinemia, which may result from exaggerated insulin responses to rapidly absorbed starch in high-SAA individuals or from inefficient digestion and prolonged glucose absorption in low-SAA individuals, can downregulate insulin receptor sensitivity and disrupt metabolic homeostasis [33].”
Faba bean starch: structure, functionality, and applications
Vishnupriya, S., Roshini, D., Bhavaniramya, S., et al. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-18981-4.00014-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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Strategic exploration of whole grain cereals in modulating the glycaemic response
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“The postprandial glycaemic response, which reflects the carbohydrate quality concerning its nutritional and health implications, bears significant weight, especially considering the potential health implications of persistent elevated glycaemic responses (Cai et al. 2021).”
Liu, Y., Song, L., & Hao, X. (2026) · Food Hydrocolloids · doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2026.112709 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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“As the most important source of carbohydrates in daily diets, grain foods have substantial impacts on glycemic management due to the disparity of the types and characteristics of the carbohydrate components [4], as well as the digestibility of starch after preparation [5,6].”
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“Starch is a carbohydrate reserve in plants accounting for the major share of the global nutrient intake by consumers [32].”
Hammond, L., Wurtele, M., de Almeida, R., Silva, C. J., DeBlasi, J. M., Lu, Y., & Bellissimo, N. (2024) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods13152308 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“For example, lower starch gelatinization, retrograded starch, and a high amylose content have been shown to reduce postprandial glycemia [35].”
BackgroundSeparating Myths From Facts About Bread and Health
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“…both yeast and sourdough-fermented breads may also reduce the rate of digestion and absorption leading to effects on increased satiety and reduced glycaemic response compared to breads made from finely milled grains (Edwards et al. 2015; Aleixandre et al. 2019; Cai et al. 2021; Ying et al. 2024).”
Self-citationKrisbianto, O., & Minantyo, H. (2024) · Food Research · doi:10.26656/fr.2017.8(3).226 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“On the other hand, starch content may support health, especially amylose which can turn into resistant starch after being processed into food products (Cai et al. , 2021).”
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“…amount of carbohydrate can elicit different glycemic responses because of differences in food structure, processing, starch fractions (rapidly available vs. slowly available), and the effect of non-carbohydrate components (fat, protein, fiber) on gastric emptying and intestinal digestion [4–7].”
Bipat, R., Magali, I., Soekhoe, R., & Toelsie, J. R. (2023) · Medical Research Archives · doi:10.18103/mra.v11i4.3739 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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“Previous studies have shown that amylose-rich foods are digested more slowly, leading to lower glycemic responses [33,34].”
Wang, Y., Jian, C., Maina, N. H., Salonen, A., & de Vos, W. M. (2026) · Advances in food and nutrition research · doi:10.1016/bs.afnr.2026.03.008 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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“Furthermore, a highly refined and small-particle starchy diet is known to induce both de novo lipogenesis and stearoyl-CoA desaturase [36,37].”
BackgroundCarbohydrate quality vs quantity on cancer Risk: Perspective of microbiome mechanisms
Liu, L., Sun, T., Liu, H., Li, J. J., & Li, T. (2024) · Journal of Functional Foods · doi:10.1016/j.jff.2024.106246 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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“In contrast, long-grain rice, with its lower amylopectin and higher amylose content, exhibited the lowest starch concentration [3,16-18].”
InfluentialNg, Y. V., Ismail, T. A. T., & Ishak, W. R. W. (2025) · International Food Research Journal · doi:10.47836/ifrj.32.1.21
Starch biosynthesis, chemistry and functional properties
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“…microstructure of starchy foods, which can be modified by processing, is another important determinant of the fiber physiological effects; for example, consumption of more coarsely ground flours leads to lower postprandial blood glucose and insulin responses compared to finely ground flours [ 7 ].”
Amylose content outperforms digestion kinetics in predicting the glycemic index of cooked rice
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Nutritional and Health Aspects of Oat Proteins
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- Authors
- Cai, M., Dou, B., Pugh, J. E., Lett, A. M., & Frost, G. S.
- Affiliations
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Frost, Gary S
- Venue
- The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-08
- Volume
- 114
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 472-487
- ISSN
- 0002-9165 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8326057
- OpenAlex
- W3164391466
- Semantic Scholar
- b9448157e87fa760f165f9cadf880fbd555ced83
- Cited by
- 72
- References
- 65
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 1.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- China Scholarship Council
- NIHR Imperial Biomedical Research Centre
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Food composition and properties
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Potato Plant Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Natural Antidiabetic Agents Studies
- Keywords
- postprandial glycemic response, postprandial insulin response, appetite regulation, satiety, amylose/amylopectin ratio, starch gelatinization, starch retrogradation, starch-protein interactions, starch granule size, food texture, type 2 diabetes risk, obesity risk, healthy adults
- MeSH terms
- Blood Glucose, Dietary Carbohydrates, Food Analysis, Humans, Starch, Postprandial Period
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