Contribution of Socioeconomic Status at 3 Life-Course Periods to Late-Life Memory Function and Decline: Early and Late Predictors of Dementia Risk
Open accessAbstract
Both early life and adult socioeconomic status (SES) predict late-life level of memory; however, evidence is mixed on the relationship between SES and rate of memory decline. Further, the relative importance of different life-course periods for rate of late-life memory decline has not been evaluated. We examined associations between life-course SES and late-life memory function and decline. Health and Retirement Study participants (n = 10,781) were interviewed biennially from 1998-2012 (United States). SES measurements for childhood (composite score including parents' educational attainment), early adulthood (high-school or college completion), and older adulthood (income, mean age 66 years) were all dichotomized. Word-list memory was modeled via inverse-probability weighted longitudinal models accounting for differential attrition, survival, and time-varying confounding, with nonrespondents retained via proxy assessments. Compared to low SES at all 3 points (referent), stable, high SES predicted the best memory function and slowest decline. High-school completion had the largest estimated effect on memory (β = 0.19; 95% confidence interval: 0.15, 0.22), but high late-life income had the largest estimated benefit for slowing declines (for 10-year memory change, β = 0.35; 95% confidence interval: 0.24, 0.46). Both early and late-life interventions are potentially relevant for reducing dementia risk by improving memory function or slowing decline.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Research shows dementia risk to be associated with lower socio-economic status, independently of education status.
“research shows dementia risk to be associated with lower socio-economic status, independently of education status118,119.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [119]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Child abuse: Adolescent records vs. adult recall
Femina, D. D., Yeager, C. A., & Lewis, D. O. (1990) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(90)90033-p · Cited by 8,820 · see citing works
Marginal Structural Models and Causal Inference in Epidemiology
Robins, J. M., Hernán, M. Á., & Brumback, B. (2000) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/00001648-200009000-00011 · Cited by 5,581 · see citing works
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Stern, Y. (2012) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(12)70191-6 · Cited by 3,557 · see citing works
Ben-Shlomo, Y. (2002) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/31.2.285 · Cited by 3,038 · see citing works
Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943 · see citing works
Brookmeyer, R., Gray, S. G., & Kawas, C. H. (1998) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.88.9.1337 · Cited by 1,774 · see citing works
An Overview of the Health and Retirement Study
Juster, F., & Suzman, R. (1995) · The Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.2307/146277 · Cited by 1,476 · see citing works
Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease
Stern, Y. (1994) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03510370056032 · Cited by 1,434 · see citing works
Depp, C. A., & Jeste, D. V. (2006) · The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.jgp.0000192501.03069.bc · Cited by 1,292 · see citing works
Jorm, A. F. (1994) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329170002691x · Cited by 1,197 · see citing works
Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease
Katzman, R. (1993) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.43.1_part_1.13 · Cited by 1,153 · see citing works
Jorm, A. F., & Jacomb, P. A. (1989) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291700005742 · Cited by 1,104 · see citing works
Cognitive Reserve and Alzheimer Disease
Stern, Y. (2006) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/01.wad.0000213815.20177.19 · Cited by 838 · see citing works
The Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE): a review
Jorm, A. F. (2004) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610204000390 · Cited by 823 · see citing works
Glymour, M. M., Weuve, J., Berkman, L. F., Kawachi, I. I., & Robins, J. M. (2005) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwi187 · Cited by 706 · see citing works
Self-citationSnowdon, D. A. (1996) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1996.03530310034029 · Cited by 696 · see citing works
Plassman, B. L., Williams, J. W., Burke, J. R., Holsinger, T., & Benjamin, S. (2010) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-153-3-201008030-00258 · Cited by 681 · see citing works
Beydoun, M. A., Beydoun, H. A., Gamaldo, A. A., Teel, A., Zonderman, A. B., & Wang, Y. (2014) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-643 · Cited by 671 · see citing works
The biological embedding of early experience and its effects on health in adulthood
HERTZMAN, C. (1999) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08107.x · Cited by 631 · see citing works
Predictors of cognitive change in older persons: MacArthur studies of successful aging.
Albert, M., Jones, K. J., Savage, C. R., Berkman, L. F., Seeman, T. E., Blazer, D. G., & Rowe, J. W. (1995) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.10.4.578 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
Predictors of cognitive change in older persons: MacArthur studies of successful aging.
Albert, M. S., Jones, K., Savage, C. R., Berkman, L., Seeman, T., Blazer, D., & Rowe, J. W. (1995) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.10.4.578 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
Fratiglioni, L., Grut, M., Forsell, Y., Viitanen, M., Grafström, M., Holmen, K., Ericsson, K., Bäckman, L., Ahlbom, A., & Winblad, B. (1991) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.41.12.1886 · Cited by 525 · see citing works
Pollitt, R. A., Rose, K. M., & Kaufman, J. S. (2005) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-5-7 · Cited by 518 · see citing works
Berkman, L. F. A. K. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780195377903.001.0001 · Cited by 485 · see citing works
Lifecourse Social Conditions and Racial and Ethnic Patterns of Cognitive Aging
Glymour, M. M., & Manly, J. J. (2008) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-008-9064-z · Cited by 481 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive reserve and the neurobiology of cognitive aging
Whalley, L. J., Deary, I. J., Appleton, C. L., & Starr, J. M. (2004) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2004.05.001 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
Evans, D. A., Hebert, L. E., Beckett, L. A., Scherr, P. A., Albert, M. S., Chown, M. J., Pilgrim, D. M., & Taylor, J. O. (1997) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.1997.00550230066019 · Cited by 435 · see citing works
The Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study: Study Design and Methods
Langa, K. M., Plassman, B. L., Wallace, R. B., Herzog, A. R., Heeringa, S. G., Ofstedal, M. B., Burke, J. R., Fisher, G. G., Fultz, N. H., Hurd, M. D., et al. (2005) · Neuroepidemiology · doi:10.1159/000087448 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Educational attainment and cognitive decline in old age
Wilson, R. S., Hebert, L. E., Scherr, P. A., Barnes, L. L., Mendes de Leon, C. F., & Evans, D. A. (2009) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000341782.71418.6c · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Childhood socioeconomic position and cognitive function in adulthood
Kaplan, G. A., Turrell, G., Lynch, J. W., Everson‐Rose, S. A., Helkala, E., & Salonen, J. T. (2001) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/30.2.256 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
A life-course approach to the aetiology of late-onset dementias
Whalley, L. J., Dick, F. D., & McNeill, G. (2005) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(05)70286-6 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Zahodne, L. B., Glymour, M. M., Sparks, C., Bontempo, D., Dixon, R. A., MacDonald, S. W. S., & Manly, J. J. (2011) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617711001044 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Self-citationA life course approach to cognitive reserve: a model for cognitive aging and development?
Richards, M., & Deary, I. J. (2005) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.20637 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Level of education and change in cognitive function in a community population of older persons
Evans, D. A., Beckett, L. A., Albert, M., Hebert, L. E., Scherr, P. A., Funkenstein, H. H., & Taylor, J. O. (1993) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/1047-2797(93)90012-s · Cited by 312 · see citing works
Karlamangla, A. S., Miller‐Martinez, D., Aneshensel, C. S., Seeman, T. E., Wight, R. G., & Chodosh, J. (2009) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwp154 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Tucker–Drob, E. M., Johnson, K. E., & Jones, R. N. (2009) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014012 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Incidence of dementia and cognitive impairment, not dementia in the united states
Plassman, B. L., Langa, K. M., McCammon, R. J., Fisher, G. G., Potter, G. G., Burke, J. R., Steffens, D. C., Foster, N. L., Giordani, B., Unverzagt, F. W., et al. (2011) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.22362 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Socioeconomic Position Across the Lifecourse and Cognitive Function in Late Middle Age
Turrell, G., Lynch, J. W., Kaplan, G. A., Everson‐Rose, S. A., Helkala, E., Kauhanen, J., & Salonen, J. T. (2002) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/57.1.s43 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Relationship between education and age-related cognitive decline: A review of recent research
Lenehan, M. E., Summers, M. J., Saunders, N. L., Summers, J. J., & Vickers, J. C. (2015) · Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1111/psyg.12083 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Cognitive Reserve and Alzheimer’s Disease
Xu, W., Yu, J., Tan, M., & Tan, L. (2014) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-014-8720-y · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Brayne, C., & Calloway, P. (1990) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/19.2.91 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
THE MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL COGNITIVE FUNCTION AND AGEING STUDY (1998) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291797006272 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Banks, J. W., & Mazzonna, F. (2012) · Economic Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2012.02499.x · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Education and change in cognitive function
Farmer, M. E., Kittner, S. J., Rae, D. S., Bartko, J. J., & Regier, D. A. (1995) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/1047-2797(94)00047-w · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Lyketsos, C. G., Chen, L.-S., & Anthony, J. C. (1999) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.156.1.58 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Early Life Conditions and Cognitive Functioning in Later Life
Everson‐Rose, S. A. (2003) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwg263 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Butler, S. M., Ashford, J. W., & Snowdon, D. A. (1996) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1996.tb01831.x · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Launer, L. J., Dinkgreve, M. A. H. M., Jonker, C., Hooijer, C., & Lindeboom, J. (1993) · Journal of Gerontology · doi:10.1093/geronj/48.6.p271 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Education and the Risk of Alzheimer's Disease: Findings From the Study of Dementia in Swedish Twins
Gatz, M., Svedberg, P., Pedersen, N. L., Mortimer, J. A., Berg, S., & Johansson, B. E. A. (2001) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/56.5.p292 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Prevalence of dementia in an elderly rural population: effects of age, sex, and education.
Prencipe, M., Casini, A. R., Ferretti, C., Lattanzio, M. T., Fiorelli, M., & Culasso, F. (1996) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.60.6.628 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Hazzouri, A. Z. A., Haan, M. N., Kalbfleisch, J. D., Galea, S., Lisabeth, L. D., & Aiello, A. E. (2011) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwq483 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Coordinated analysis of age, sex, and education effects on change in MMSE scores.
Piccinin, A., Muniz-Terrera, G., Clouston, S. A. P., Reynolds, C., Thorvaldsson, V., Deary, I., Deeg, D., Johansson, B., Mackinnon, A., Spiro, A., et al. (2013) · The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbs077 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
De Ronchi, D., Fratiglioni, L., Rucci, P., Paternicò, A., Graziani, S., & Dalmonte, E. (1998) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.50.5.1231 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Effects of early-life adversity on cognitive decline in older African Americans and whites
Barnes, L. L., Wilson, R. S., Everson‐Rose, S. A., Hayward, M. D., Evans, D. A., & de Leon, C. F. M. (2012) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e318278b607 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
EDUCATION AND AGE-RELATED COGNITIVE DECLINE: THE CONTRIBUTION OF MENTAL WORKLOAD
Bosma, H., van Boxtel, M. P. J., Ponds, R., Houx, P. J., & Jolles, J. (2003) · Educational Gerontology · doi:10.1080/10715769800300191 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Dijk, K. R. A. V., Gerven, P. W. M. V., van Boxtel, M. P. J., der Elst, W. V., & Jolles, J. (2008) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.23.1.119 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Gottesman, R. F., Rawlings, A. M., Sharrett, A. R., Albert, M., Alonso, Á., Bandeen‐Roche, K., Coker, L. H., Coresh, J., Couper, D. J., Griswold, M. E., et al. (2014) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwu020 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Early Life Socioeconomic Status and Late Life Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease
Wilson, R. S., Scherr, P. A., Hoganson, G. M., Bienias, J. L., Evans, D. A., & Bennett, D. A. (2005) · Neuroepidemiology · doi:10.1159/000085307 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Nguyen, T. T. X., Tchetgen, E. J. T., Kawachi, I. I., Gilman, S. E., Walter, S., Liu, S. Y., Manly, J. J., & Glymour, M. M. (2015) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2015.10.006 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Self-citation(2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203783047 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Stroke Disparities in Older Americans
Avendaño, M., & Glymour, M. M. (2008) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/strokeaha.107.490383 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citationCombining Direct and Proxy Assessments to Reduce Attrition Bias in a Longitudinal Study
Wu, Q., Tchetgen, E. J. T., Osypuk, T. L., White, K., Mujahid, M. S., & Glymour, M. M. (2012) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0b013e31826cfe90 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citationChristensen, H. M., Hofer, S. M., Mackinnon, A. J., Korten, A. E., Jorm, A. F., & Henderson, A. S. (2001) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291799002834 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Individual differences in trajectory of intellectual development over 45 years of adulthood.
Arbuckle, T. Y., Maag, U. R., Pushkar, D., & Chaikelson, J. (1998) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.13.4.663 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Scazufca, M., Menezes, P. R., Araya, R., Rienzo, V. D. D., Almeida, O. P., Gunnell, D., & Lawlor, D. A. (2008) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyn125 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Individual differences in trajectory of intellectual development over 45 years of adulthood.
Arbuckle, T. Y., Maag, U., Pushkar, D., & Chaikelson, J. S. (1998) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.13.4.663 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Haan, M. N., Hazzouri, A. Z. A., & Aiello, A. E. (2011) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbq071 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Education and Occupation as Risk Factors for Dementias of the Alzheimer and Ischemic Vascular Types
Mortel, K. F., Meyer, J. S., Herod, B., & Thornby, J. A. (1995) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000106922 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H. M., Korten, A. E., Jacomb, P. A., & Henderson, A. S. (2000) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291799002299 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Glymour, M. M., Tzourio, C., & Dufouil, C. (2012) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwr509 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationLife Course Socioeconomic Position and Mid-Late Life Cognitive Function in Eastern Europe
Horvat, P., Richards, M., Malyutina, S. K., Pajak, A., Kubínová, R., Tamošiūnas, A., Pikhart, H., Peasey, A., Marmot, M. G., & Bobák, M. (2014) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbu014 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Recent advances in research on successful or healthy aging
Depp, C. A., Glatt, S. J., & Jeste, D. V. (2007) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-007-0003-0 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Parental Education and Late-life Dementia in the United States
Rogers, M. A. M., Plassman, B. L., Kabeto, M. U., Fisher, G. G., McArdle, J. J., Llewellyn, D. J., Potter, G. G., & Langa, K. M. (2008) · Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1177/0891988708328220 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
González, H. M., Tarraf, W., Bowen, M. E., Johnson-Jennings, M., & Fisher, G. G. (2013) · Neuroepidemiology · doi:10.1159/000350723 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Environmental differences in twin pairs discordant for Alzheimer's disease
Räihä, I. J., Kaprio, J. A., Koskenvuo, M., Rajala, T., & Sourander, L. (1998) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.65.5.785 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Education and Cognitive Change over 15 Years: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study
Schneider, A. L. C., Sharrett, A. R., Patel, M. D., Alonso, Á., Coresh, J., Mosley, T. H., Selnes, O. A., Selvin, E., & Gottesman, R. F. (2012) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2012.04164.x · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Tchetgen, E. J. T., Glymour, M. M., Weuve, J., & Robins, J. M. (2012) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0b013e31825727b5 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationNishita, Y., Tange, C., Tomida, M., Ando, F., & Shimokata, H. (2013) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.1111/jpr.12028 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Alzheimer Disease Genetics Consortium (ADGC), Kunkle, B. W., The European Alzheimer’s Disease Initiative (EADI), Cohorts for Heart and Aging Research in Genomic Epidemiology Consortium (CHARGE), Genetic and Environmental Risk in AD/Defining Genetic, P. A. E. R. F. A. D. C. (., Grenier-Boley, B., Sims, R., Bis, J. C., Damotte, V., Naj, A. C., et al. (2019) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-019-0358-2 · Cited by 2,946 · see citing works
2024 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures
(2024) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13809 · Cited by 2,536 · see citing works
Education and cognitive functioning across the life span
Lövdén, M., Fratiglioni, L., Glymour, M. M., Lindenberger, U., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100620920576 · Cited by 1,224 · see citing works
Self-citationCadar, D., Lassale, C., Davies, H., Llewellyn, D. J., Batty, G. D., & Steptoe, A. (2018) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.1012 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Life course epidemiology and public health
Wagner, C., Carmeli, C., Jackisch, J., Kivimäki, M., van der Linden, B. W. A., Cullati, S., & Chiolero, A. (2024) · The Lancet Public Health · doi:10.1016/s2468-2667(24)00018-5 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Mostert, C. M., Udeh-Momoh, C., Winkler, A. S., McLaughlin, C., Eyre, H., Salama, M., Ranchod, K., Trepel, D., Vradenburg, G., Hynes, W., et al. (2025) · eBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105950 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Letellier, N., Ilango, S. D., Mortamais, M., Tzourio, C., Gabelle, A., Empana, J.-P., Samieri, C., Berr, C., & Benmarhnia, T. (2021) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-021-00788-8 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Childhood socioeconomic position and later-life cognitive functioning in the U.S.: A critical review
Skoblow, H. F., Proulx, C. M., & Palermo, F. (2024) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2023.101104 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
- Authors
- Marden, J. R., Tchetgen Tchetgen, E. J., Kawachi, I., & Glymour, M. M.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Marden, Jessica R.
- Venue
- American Journal of Epidemiology
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2017-05-24
- Volume
- 186
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 805-814
- ISSN
- 0002-9262 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-6256
- PMC
- PMC5859987
- OpenAlex
- W2618542456
- Cited by
- 284
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 52 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 13.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Journal of Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (NINDS T32 NS048005, NIAID R01 AI104459)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- socioeconomic status, memory decline, dementia risk, word list memory, childhood socioeconomic status, high school graduation, income, educational attainment, Health and Retirement Study
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Dementia, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Income, Male, Memory, Memory Disorders, Risk Factors, Social Class, United States
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
