Development, pharmacology and clinical experience with clomiphene citrate
Abstract
This review describes the development and pharmacology of clomiphene and those specific characteristics of both drug and patients which determine its clinical efficacy. The studies reviewed describe clinical observation of patient characteristics (age, additional infertility diagnosis, semen quality), vaginal ultrasound observations of ovaries (number and size of pre-ovulatory follicles) and endometrial lining (thickness, pattern) in 2841 clomiphene cycles in patients who required intrauterine insemination (IUI) because of poor sperm quality or an unsatisfactory postcoital test. They show that (i) conception in clomiphene cycles is related to the number and size of pre-ovulatory follicles, endometrial thickness, patient age, pelvic adhesions, type of anovulatory disorder and semen quality; (ii) pregnancy rates per clomiphene-IUI cycle are constant through at least six cycles; (iii) multiple births cannot be prevented by withholding human chorionic gonadotrophin or advising against coitus when multiple pre-ovulation follicles are present unless all follicles down to 10-12 mm diameter are counted. We also reviewed pregnancy outcome (number of gestational sacs, babies, preclinical and clinical abortion, ectopic pregnancy and birth sex) in 1744 clomiphene pregnancies from our clinic. We found that (i) preclinical and clinical abortions are increased only slightly by clomiphene use, compared to spontaneous pregnancy; (ii) clinical abortions are decreased in patients with polycystic ovaries and luteal insufficiency who use clomiphene; (iii) conception and preclinical abortions are related to endometrial thickness prior to ovulation; (iv) ectopic pregnancies are not increased by clomiphene and (v) the ratio of male births is not altered by clomiphene, except possibly in timed insemination cycles. These studies repudiate many misconceptions regarding clomiphene. They also show that clinical outcome may be improved by pre-ovulation ultrasound monitoring of ovarian and endometrial response.
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No pregnancies occurred in cycles with endometrial thickness ≤6 mm at midcycle.
“Dickey and Holtkamp (8) as well as Gonen and Casper (10) reported no pregnancies occurring in cycles with endometrial thickness Յ6 mm at midcycle (8,10)”
From A randomized double-blind comparison of the effects of clomiphene citrate and the aromatase inhibitor letrozole on ovulatory function in normal women (2002) · cites this paper as [8]
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- Authors
- Dickey, R.
- Affiliations
- Louisiana State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Dickey, R.
- ORCID
- Dickey, R.
- Venue
- Human Reproduction Update
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1996-11-01
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 483-506
- ISSN
- 1355-4786 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2369
- OpenAlex
- W1987775866
- Cited by
- 226
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 1.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Human Reproduction Update (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Reproductive Health and Technologies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Ovarian function and disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Reproductive Health and Contraception
- Keywords
- clomiphene citrate, ovulation induction, intrauterine insemination, anovulatory infertility, preovulatory follicles, endometrial thickness, pregnancy rate, multiple births, abortion, ectopic pregnancy, polycystic ovary, luteal insufficiency, sex ratio, ultrasound monitoring, drug development, pharmacology
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Clomiphene, Coitus, Female, Fertility Agents, Female, Chorionic Gonadotropin, Humans, Infant, Newborn, Male, Maternal Age, Ovulation Induction, Pregnancy, Pregnancy Outcome, Reproductive Techniques, Semen
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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