Concentrations of Choline-Containing Compounds and Betaine in Common Foods
Open accessAbstract
Choline is important for normal membrane function, acetylcholine synthesis and methyl group metabolism; the choline requirement for humans is 550 mg/d for men (Adequate Intake). Betaine, a choline derivative, is important because of its role in the donation of methyl groups to homocysteine to form methionine. In tissues and foods, there are multiple choline compounds that contribute to total choline concentration (choline, glycerophosphocholine, phosphocholine, phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin). In this study, we collected representative food samples and analyzed the choline concentration of 145 common foods using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Foods with the highest total choline concentration (mg/100 g) were: beef liver (418), chicken liver (290), eggs (251), wheat germ (152), bacon (125), dried soybeans (116) and pork (103). The foods with the highest betaine concentration (mg/100 g) were: wheat bran (1339), wheat germ (1241), spinach (645), pretzels (237), shrimp (218) and wheat bread (201). A number of epidemiologic studies have examined the relationship between dietary folic acid and cancer or heart disease. It may be helpful to also consider choline intake as a confounding factor because folate and choline methyl donation can be interchangeable.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Choline occurs in foods as free choline and choline esters, and these forms are absorbed differently in the intestine.
“Choline is present as free choline and choline esters (such as PtdCho) in foods (130), and these forms of choline are absorbed differently in the intestines.”
From Trimethylamine <i>N</i> -Oxide, the Microbiome, and Heart and Kidney Disease (2017) · cites this paper as [130]
The foods richest in choline are animal foods, especially eggs and liver, but most foods eaten contain some choline or choline compounds.
“The foods that contain the most choline are of animal origin, especially eggs and liver; however, most of the foods we eat contain some amounts of choline or choline compounds (129, 130).”
From Trimethylamine <i>N</i> -Oxide, the Microbiome, and Heart and Kidney Disease (2017) · cites this paper as [130]
The foods richest in choline are animal foods, especially eggs and liver, but most foods eaten contain some choline or choline compounds.
“The foods that contain the most choline are of animal origin, especially eggs and liver; however, most of the foods we eat contain some amounts of choline or choline compounds (129, 130).”
From Trimethylamine <i>N</i> -Oxide, the Microbiome, and Heart and Kidney Disease (2017) · cites this paper as [129]
The foods richest in betaine are plant foods, especially spinach, beets, and grains grown in high-osmotic environments.
“The foods that contain the most betaine are of plant origin, especially spinach, beets and grains grown in high osmotic environments (129, 130).”
From Trimethylamine <i>N</i> -Oxide, the Microbiome, and Heart and Kidney Disease (2017) · cites this paper as [130]
The foods richest in betaine are plant foods, especially spinach, beets, and grains grown in high-osmotic environments.
“The foods that contain the most betaine are of plant origin, especially spinach, beets and grains grown in high osmotic environments (129, 130).”
From Trimethylamine <i>N</i> -Oxide, the Microbiome, and Heart and Kidney Disease (2017) · cites this paper as [129]
The rate of incident CHD in this population (2.86 events/1000 person-years) was almost half of the age-standardized rate seen in the ARIC study population (5.53 events/1000 person-years).
“The rate of incident CHD in this population (2.86 events/1000 personyears) was almost half of the age-standardized rate seen in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study population (5.53 events/1000 person-years 39 ), the participants of which were selected to be representative of adults in 4 communities across the United States.40”
Cites
A RAPID METHOD OF TOTAL LIPID EXTRACTION AND PURIFICATION
Bligh, E. G., & Dyer, W. J. (1959) · Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology · doi:10.1139/o59-099 · Cited by 54,751 · see citing works
A RAPID METHOD OF TOTAL LIPID EXTRACTION AND PURIFICATION
Bligh, E. G., & Dyer, W. J. (1959) · Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology · doi:10.1139/y59-099 · Cited by 23,189 · see citing works
Zeisel, S. H., & Blusztajn, J. K. (1994) · Annual Review of Nutrition · doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.14.070194.001413 · Cited by 751 · see citing works
Self-citationCholine, an essential nutrient for humans
Zeisel, S. H., da Costa, K.-A., Franklin, P. D., ALEXANDER, E. A., LaMont, J. T., Sheard, N. F., & Beiser, A. (1991) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fasebj.5.7.2010061 · Cited by 623 · see citing works
Self-citationBuchman, A. L., Dubin, M. D., Moukarzel, A. A., Jenden, D. J., Roch, M., Rice, K. M., Gornbein, J. A., & Ament, M. E. (1995) · Hepatology · doi:10.1002/hep.1840220510 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Doshi, S. N., McDowell, I. F. W., Moat, S. J., et al. (2002) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/hc0102.101388 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Koç, H., Mar, M.-H. H., Ranasinghe, A., Swenberg, J. A., & Zeisel, S. H. (2002) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/ac025624x · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Self-citationNichols, B. W. (1963) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta · doi:10.1016/0006-3002(63)90771-6 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Low Dietary Folate Intake Is Associated With an Excess Incidence of Acute Coronary Events
Voutilainen, S., Rissanen, T., Virtanen, J. K., Lakka, T. A., & Salonen, J. T. (2001) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/01.cir.103.22.2674 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Trimethylaminuria: the fish malodor syndrome.
Mitchell, S. C., & Smith, R. L. (2001) · PubMed · Cited by 207 · see citing works
USDA's National Food and Nutrient Analysis Program: Food Sampling
Pehrsson, P. R., Haytowitz, D. B., Holden, J. M., et al. (2000) · Journal of Food Composition and Analysis · doi:10.1006/jfca.1999.0867 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Self-citationHuman Betaine–Homocysteine Methyltransferase Is a Zinc Metalloenzyme
Millian, N. S., & Garrow, T. A. (1998) · Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics · doi:10.1006/abbi.1998.0757 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Severe Folate Deficiency Causes Secondary Depletion of Choline and Phosphocholine in Rat Liver
Kim, Y., Miller, J. W., da Costa, K.-A., Nadeau, M., Smith, D. E., Selhub, J., Zeisel, S. H., & Mason, J. B. (1994) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/124.11.2197 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Self-citationLabile Methyl Groups and the Promotion of Cancer
Newberne, P. M., & Rogers, A. E. (1986) · Annual Review of Nutrition · doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.06.070186.002203 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Buchman, A. L., Dubin, M., Jenden, D. J., Moukarzel, A. A., Roch, M. H., Rice, K. M., Gornbein, J. A., Ament, M. E., & Eckhert, C. D. (1992) · Gastroenterology · doi:10.1016/0016-5085(92)90777-v · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Folate: effects on carcinogenesis and the potential for cancer chemoprevention.
Mason, J. B., & Levesque, T. (1996) · PubMed · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Weihrauch, J. L., & Son, Y. (1983) · Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society · doi:10.1007/bf02669968 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Methionine metabolism in mammals: Kinetic study of betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase
Finkelstein, J. D., Harris, B. J., & Kyle, W. E. (1972) · Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics · doi:10.1016/0003-9861(72)90451-1 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Buchman, A. L., Moukarzel, A. A., Jenden, D. J., et al. (1993) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/0261-5614(93)90143-r · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Plasma choline concentration in humans fed parenterally
Sheard, N. F., Tayek, J., Bistrian, B. R., Blackburn, G. L., & Zeisel, S. H. (1986) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/43.2.219 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Self-citationCholine may be an essential nutrient in malnourished patients with cirrhosis
Chawla, R. K., Wolf, D. C., Kutner, M., et al. (1989) · Gastroenterology · doi:10.1016/0016-5085(89)90397-1 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
The Choline Content of Animal and Plant Products
Engel, R. W. (1943) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/25.5.441 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Bioavailability of choline and choline esters from milk in rat pups
Cheng, W.-L., Holmes-McNary, M. Q., Mar, M.-H. H., Lien, E. L., & Zeisel, S. H. (1996) · The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/0955-2863(96)00079-4 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationEffect of chronic choline deficiency in rats on liver folate content and distribution
Varela‐Moreiras, G., Selhub, J., daCosta, K.-A., & Zeisel, S. H. (1992) · The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/0955-2863(92)90073-r · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationDetermination of sugars (and betaine) in molasses by high-performance liquid chromatography
Rajakylá, E., & Paloposki, M. (1983) · Journal of Chromatography A · doi:10.1016/s0021-9673(00)91636-4 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Trimethylaminuria: The detection of carriers using a trimethylamine load test
Al-Waiz, M. M., Ayesh, R., Mitchell, S. C., Idle, J. R., & Smith, R. L. (1988) · Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease · doi:10.1007/bf01805534 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Trimethylaminuria (‘fish-odour syndrome’): A study of an affected family
Al-Waiz, M. M., Ayesh, R., Mitchell, S. C., Idle, J. R., & Smith, R. L. (1988) · Clinical Science · doi:10.1042/cs0740231 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
An in Vitro Study of Choline Uptake by Intestine from Neonatal and Adult Rats
Sheard, N. F., & Zeisel, S. H. (1986) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1203/00006450-198608000-00014 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationTrimethylaminuria associated with seizures and behavioural disturbance: A case report
McConnell, H., Mitchell, S. C., Smith, R. L., et al. (1997) · Seizure · doi:10.1016/s1059-1311(97)80080-5 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Saarinen, M., Kettunen, H., Pulliainen, K., et al. (2001) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/jf000675l · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Choline Deficiency in the Hamster
Handler, P., & Bernheim, F. (1949) · Experimental Biology and Medicine · doi:10.3181/00379727-72-17502 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
The Phospholipid content of foods
Weihrauch, J. L., & Son, Y. (1983) · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The Choline and Pyridoxine Content of Meats
McIntire, J. M., Schweigert, B. S., & Elvehjem, C. A. (1944) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/28.4.219 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Betaine and homocysteine concentrations in infant formulae and breast milk
Sakamoto, A., Ono, H., Mizoguchi, N., et al. (2001) · Pediatrics International · doi:10.1046/j.1442-200x.2001.01465.x · Cited by 18 · see citing works
SoRelle, R. (2001) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/hc4901.103512 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Significance of the B-vitamins in swine nutrition.
Fairbanks, B. W., & Krider, J. L. (1945) · The North American veterinarian · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease
Wang, Z., Klipfell, E., Bennett, B. J., Koeth, R., Levison, B. S., DuGar, B., Feldstein, A. E., Britt, E. B., Fu, X., Chung, Y.-M., et al. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09922 · Cited by 5,597 · see citing works
Intestinal microbiota metabolism of l-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis
Koeth, R. A., Wang, Z., Levison, B. S., Buffa, J. A., Org, E., Sheehy, B. T., Britt, E. B., Fu, X., Wu, Y., Li, L., et al. (2013) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.3145 · Cited by 4,386 · see citing works
Gut microbiome and health: mechanistic insights
de Vos, W. M., Tilg, H., Van Hul, M., & Cani, P. D. (2022) · Gut · doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2021-326789 · Cited by 2,388 · see citing works
Craig, S. A. (2004) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/80.3.539 · Cited by 1,062 · see citing works
Choline: an essential nutrient for public health
Zeisel, S. H., & da Costa, K.-A. (2009) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00246.x · Cited by 1,062 · see citing works
Self-citationNew hypotheses for the health-protective mechanisms of whole-grain cereals: what is beyond fibre?
Fardet, A. (2010) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422410000041 · Cited by 1,030 · see citing works
Stress Physiology of Lactic Acid Bacteria.
Papadimitriou, K., Alegría, Á., Bron, P. A., de Angelis, M., Gobbetti, M., Kleerebezem, M., Lemos, J. A., Linares, D. M., Ross, P., Stanton, C., et al. (2016) · Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews · doi:10.1128/mmbr.00076-15 · Cited by 914 · see citing works
Schwingshackl, L., Hoffmann, G., Lampousi, A.-M., Knüppel, S., Iqbal, K., Schwedhelm, C., Bechthold, A., Schlesinger, S., & Boeing, H. (2017) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-017-0246-y · Cited by 799 · see citing works
Spencer, M. D., Hamp, T. J., Reid, R. W., Fischer, L. M., Zeisel, S. H., & Fodor, A. A. (2011) · Gastroenterology · doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2010.11.049 · Cited by 593 · see citing works
Self-citationTrimethylamine <i>N</i> -Oxide, the Microbiome, and Heart and Kidney Disease
Zeisel, S. H., & Warrier, M. (2017) · Annual Review of Nutrition · doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-071816-064732 · Cited by 475 · see citing works
Self-citationChiuve, S. E., McCullough, M. L., Sacks, F. M., & Rimm, E. B. (2006) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/circulationaha.106.621417 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Fennema, D., Phillips, I. R., & Shephard, E. A. (2016) · Drug Metabolism and Disposition · doi:10.1124/dmd.116.070615 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Detopoulou, P., Panagiotakos, D. B., Antonopoulou, S., Pitsavos, C., & Stefanadis, C. (2008) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/87.2.424 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Miller, C. A., Corbin, K. D., da Costa, K.-A., Zhang, S., Zhao, X., Galanko, J. A., Blevins, T., Bennett, B. J., O’Connor, A., & Zeisel, S. H. (2014) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.087692 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Self-citationBidulescu, A., Chambless, L. E., Siega-Riz, A. M., Zeisel, S. H., & Heiss, G. (2007) · BMC Cardiovascular Disorders · doi:10.1186/1471-2261-7-20 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Self-citationDalmeijer, G. W., Olthof, M. R., Verhoef, P., Bots, M. L., & van der Schouw, Y. T. (2008) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602725 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Barel, A., Calomme, M., Timchenko, A., Paepe, K. D., Demeester, N., Rogiers, V., Clarys, P., & Vanden Berghe, D. (2005) · Archives of Dermatological Research · doi:10.1007/s00403-005-0584-6 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Dietary choline and betaine and the risk of distal colorectal adenoma in women
Cho, E., Willett, W. C., Colditz, G. A., Fuchs, C. S., Wu, K., Chan, A. T., Zeisel, S. H., & Giovannucci, E. L. (2007) · JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute · doi:10.1093/jnci/djm082 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Millard, H. R., Musani, S. K., Dibaba, D. T., Talegawkar, S. A., Taylor, H. A., Tucker, K. L., & Bidulescu, A. (2018) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-016-1296-8 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Zheng, Y., Li, Y., Rimm, E. B., Hu, F. B., Albert, C. M., Rexrode, K. M., Manson, J. E., & Qi, L. (2016) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.116.131771 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Lechner, J. F., Wang, L.-S., Rocha, C. M., Larue, B., Henry, C., McIntyre, C. M., Riedl, K. M., Schwartz, S. J., & Stoner, G. D. (2010) · Journal of Medicinal Food · doi:10.1089/jmf.2008.0280 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Aldana-Hernández, P., Leonard, K.-A., Zhao, Y.-Y., Curtis, J. M., Field, C. J., & Jacobs, R. L. (2020) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxz214 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Zhang, C., Pan, M., Li, B., Wang, L., Mo, X., Chen, Y., Lin, F., & Ho, S. C. (2013) · Cancer Science · doi:10.1111/cas.12064 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Yuan, J., Liu, X., Liu, C., Ang, A. F., Massaro, J., Devine, S. A., Auerbach, S. H., Blusztajn, J. K., Au, R., & Jacques, P. F. (2022) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqac193 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Bidulescu, A., Chambless, L. E., Siega-Riz, A. M., Zeisel, S. H., & Heiss, G. (2009) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-8-14 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationBerge, R. K., Ramsvik, M. S., Bohov, P., Svardal, A., Nordrehaug, J. E., Rostrup, E., Bruheim, I., & Bjørndal, B. (2015) · Lipids in Health and Disease · doi:10.1186/s12944-015-0162-7 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Heart dysfunction induced by choline-deficiency in adult rats: The protective role of l-carnitine
Strilakou, A. A., Lazaris, A. C., Perelas, A. I., Mourouzis, I. S., Douzis, I. C., Karkalousos, P. L., Stylianaki, A. T., Pantos, C. I., & Liapi, C. A. (2013) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.03.025 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Roles of Amino Acid Derivatives in the Regulation of Obesity
Zheng, J., Xiao, H., Duan, Y., Song, B., Zheng, C., Guo, Q., Li, F., & Li, T. (2021) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d1fo00780g · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Zeisel, S. H. (2010) · Journal of Nutrigenetics and Nutrigenomics · doi:10.1159/000324357 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Zeisel, S. H., Mar, M.-H., Howe, J. C., & Holden, J. M.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Corresponding author
- Zeisel, Steven H.
- ORCID
- Zeisel, Steven H.
- Venue
- The Journal of Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-05
- Volume
- 133
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1302-1307
- ISSN
- 0022-3166 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2155614484
- Cited by
- 744
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 37 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 45 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 28
- FWCI
- 10.43
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- erratum (2003-09-01)
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Department of Agriculture (59-1235-0-0059)
- National Institutes of Health (Y1-HV-8116-14, DK55865)
- UNC Clinical Nutrition Research Unit (DK56350)
- Center for Environmental Health (ES10126)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Rheumatology › Folate and B Vitamins Research
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food and Agricultural Sciences
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Keywords
- choline, betaine, choline-containing compounds, phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin, phosphorylcholine, glycerophosphocholine, dietary choline intake, methyl group metabolism, homocysteine, folic acid, choline requirement, wheat germ, wheat bran, eggs
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Betaine, Beverages, Energy Intake, Carbohydrates, Edible Grain, Choline, Dairy Products, Eggs, Food Analysis, Food Handling, Fruit, Humans, Fabaceae, Male, Meat, Vegetables
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
