The DOI matches its Crossref record; 18 of the 18 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 7 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Metabolic Costs of Military Load Carriage over Complex Terrain
Open accessAbstract
INTRODUCTION: Dismounted military operations often involve prolonged load carriage over complex terrain, which can result in excessive metabolic costs that can directly impair soldiers' performance. Although estimating these demands is a critical interest for mission planning purposes, it is unclear whether existing estimation equations developed from controlled laboratory- and field-based studies accurately account for energy costs of traveling over complex terrain. This study investigated the accuracy of the following equations for military populations when applied to data collected over complex terrain with two different levels of load carriage: American College of Sports Medicine (2002), Givoni and Goldman (1971), Jobe and White (2009), Minetti et al (2002), Pandolf et al (1977), and Santee et al (2003). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Nine active duty military personnel (age 21 ± 3 yr; height 1.72 ± 0.07 m; body mass 83.4 ± 12.9 kg; VO2 max 47.8 ± 3.9 mL/kg/min) were monitored during load carriage (with loads equal to 30% and 45% of body mass) over a 10-km mixed terrain course on two separate test days. The course was divided into four 2.5-km laps of 40 segments based on distance, grade, and/or surface factors. Timing gates and radio-frequency identification cards (SportIdent; Scarborough Orienteering, Huntington Beach, CA) were used to record completion times for each course segment. Breath-by-breath measures of energy expenditure were collected using portable oxygen exchange devices (COSMED Sri., Rome, Italy) and compared model estimates. RESULTS: The Santee et al equation performed best, demonstrating the smallest estimation bias (-13 ± 87 W) and lowest root mean square error (99 W). CONCLUSION: Current predictive equations underestimate the metabolic cost of load carriage by military personnel over complex terrain. Applying the Santee et al correction factor to the Pandolf et al equation may be the most suitable approach for estimating metabolic demands in these circumstances. However, this work also outlines the need for improvements to these methods, new method development and validation, or the use of a multi-model approach to account for mixed terrain.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In nine active-duty military personnel carrying 30% and 45% body mass loads over complex terrain, all six evaluated predictive equations underestimated metabolic cost. The Santee et al equation had the smallest bias (-13 ± 87 W) and lowest RMSE (99 W), and the authors recommend applying its correction factor to the Pandolf et al equation for estimating metabolic demands over complex terrain.
Key findings
- All predictive equations underestimated observed metabolic rates; observed mean was 655 ± 176 W across all segments and 638 ± 143 W across completed courses.
- Santee et al performed best: bias -13 ± 87 W, RMSE 99 W; Pandolf et al had bias -51 ± 88 W, RMSE 102 W. Pandolf and Santee also had the highest correlations with observed course metabolic rate (r = 0.79 and 0.80, respectively).
- The authors conclude that combining the Pandolf et al equation with the Santee et al correction factor is the most suitable approach, while noting a need for improved methods or a multi-model approach for mixed terrain.
Methods
- Nine active duty military personnel (8 male, 1 female; age 21 ± 3 yr; height 1.72 ± 0.07 m; body mass 83.4 ± 12.9 kg; VO2max 47.8 ± 3.9 mL/kg/min) completed two randomized marches separated by at least 5 d, carrying loads equal to 30% and 45% of body mass over a complex terrain course (abstract: 10-km mixed terrain course; methods: ~2.5-km course divided into 40 segments, with multiple laps).
- Breath-by-breath energy expenditure was measured with portable oxygen exchange devices (COSMED K4b2), and timing gates/radio-frequency identification recorded segment completion times; volunteers completed an average of 3.6 ± 0.8 laps per test session.
- Six predictive equations (ACSM, Givoni and Goldman, Jobe and White, Minetti et al, Pandolf et al, Santee et al) were compared against measured metabolic rate using bias, residual SD, RMSE, and Pearson’s correlation coefficient.
Limitations
- Stated: sample size was only nine volunteers, including a single female; not all volunteers completed all laps due to environmental exposure thresholds (n = 4) and one due to significantly increased core temperature/heat strain, though all completed at least one lap in each direction.
- Stated/discussed: the COSMED K4b2 may overestimate VO2 (prior work reports 50–200 W overestimation vs. Douglas bag, though another study found no significant difference, r = 0.96); short course segments may be too brief to approximate steady-state metabolic rates, and metabolic lag or overshoot may occur.
- Evident: the predictive equations were developed from controlled steady-state protocols, whereas this field course involved dynamic mixed terrain; the small sample also limits generalizability.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 7 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
The mean VO2 over the entire course was 22.0 ± 4.4 mL O2/kg/min.
“The mean VO 2 over the entire course was 22.0 ± 4.4 mL O 2 /kg/min.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Current predictive equations underestimate the metabolic cost of military load carriage by military personnel over complex terrain.
“Current predictive equations underestimate the metabolic cost of load carriage by military personnel over complex terrain.”
- Also stated in: § Additional information · boosted
“The most salient finding of this investigation was that each of the predictive equations underestimated the metabolic costs of military load carriage over complex terrain.”
- Also stated in: § CONCLUSION · plain
“Current predictive equations underestimate the metabolic costs of military load carriage over complex terrain.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Additional information · boosted
- Findingown data
The Pandolf et al equation had comparable accuracy among the six equations evaluated.
“The Pandolf et al equation had comparable accuracy when estimates among the six equations evaluated.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The Santee et al equation had a lower RMSE than the Pandolf et al equation when estimating overall metabolic rates per course (99 W vs. 102 W).
“However, the Santee et al equation had a lower RMSE than the Pandolf et al equation when estimating overall metabolic rates per course (99 W vs. 102 W).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Nearly all predictive equations produced estimates lower than the observed mean metabolic rate.
“Nearly all predictive equations produced estimates that were lower compared with the observed mean metabolic rate of all segments (655 ± 176 W) as well as the observed mean across all courses completed (638 ± 143 W).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Interpretationown data
Applying the Santee et al correction factor to the Pandolf et al equation may be the most suitable approach for estimating metabolic demands over complex terrain.
“Applying the Santee et al correction factor to the Pandolf et al equation may be the most suitable approach for estimating metabolic demands in these circumstances.”
- Also stated in: § CONCLUSION · plain
“From this study, a combination of the Pandolf et al equation with the correction factor from Santee et al is the most suitable method for estimating metabolic demands over complex terrain.”
- Also stated in: § RESULTS · boosted
“Consequently, the findings of this investigation support the use of the Pandolf et al equation with the correction factor from Santee et al as most suitable for estimating metabolic demands when traversing complex terrain courses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Predictive equations developed from steady-state data can be used to predict energy costs under dynamic conditions where activities change frequently enough that equilibrium cannot be achieved.
- Also stated in: § CONCLUSION · plain
- Premisecitation
McLaughlin et al found that the COSMED K4b2 overestimated VO2 consumption during cycle ergometer exercise by 50-200 W compared with the Douglas bag method.
“McLaughlin et al 18 found that the COSMED K4 b 2 overestimated VO 2 consumption during cycle ergometer exercise by 50-200 W when compared with the Douglas bag method.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [18] McLaughlin, 2001, Validation of the COSMED K4 b2 portable metabolic system, Int J Sports Med source
- Premisecitation
Comparable samples were used in original load carriage studies, including the datasets used to validate the Minetti et al (n = 10), Pandolf et al (n = 6), and Santee et al (n = 16) equations.
“However, it should be noted that comparable samples were used in many of the original load carriage studies 22 including the datasets used to validate the Minetti et al 13 (n = 10), Pandolf et al 6 (n = 6), and Santee et al 8 (n = 16) equations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [22] Brainerd, 1982 source
- cites [13] Minetti, 2002, Energy cost of walking and running at extreme uphill and downhill slopes, J Appl Physiol (1985) source
- cites [6] Pandolf, 1977, Predicting energy expenditure with loads while standing or walking very slowly, J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol source
- It may state two separate claims as one. 7
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
- Probably not a substantial claim. 5
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataThe Santee et al equation performed best among the six predictive equations, with the smallest estimation bias (-13 ± 87 W) and lowest RMSE (99 W).
“The Santee et al equation performed best, demonstrating the smallest estimation bias (-13 ± 87 W) and lowest root mean square error (99 W).”
- Also stated in: § Additional information · plain
“However, the Santee et al equation had a lower RMSE than the Pandolf et al equation when estimating overall metabolic rates per course (99 W vs. 102 W).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Additional information · plain
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe Pandolf et al and Santee et al equations had the highest correlations with observed metabolic rate for the course (r = 0.79 and 0.80, respectively), uphill (r = 0.78 for each), and downhill segments (r = 0.80 and 0.81, respectively).
“However, the Pandolf et al and Santee et al equations also had the highest correlations with the observed metabolic rate for the course (r = 0.79 and 0.80, respectively) as well as uphill (r = 0.78 for each) and downhill segments (r = 0.80 and 0.81, respectively).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe observed mean metabolic rate was 655 ± 176 W for all segments and 638 ± 143 W across all courses completed.
“observed mean metabolic rate of all segments (655 ± 176 W) as well as the observed mean across all courses completed (638 ± 143 W).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe Pandolf et al equation had bias -51 ± 88 W and RMSE 102 W for overall course metabolic rate estimates.
“Pandolf et al 6 -72 ± 463 468 0.29 -51 ± 88 102 0.79”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [6] Pandolf, 1977, Predicting energy expenditure with loads while standing or walking very slowly, J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Study design and conductnone givenThe Santee et al equation used in this investigation includes a multiplication sign following the S2 term instead of the minus sign erroneously included in the original published equation.
“The Santee et al equation used in this investigation includes a multiplication sign following the S 2 term instead of the minus sign that was erroneously included in the original published equation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Study design and conductown dataNot all volunteers completed all laps during each test session; four trials terminated early due to environmental exposure thresholds and one due to increased core temperature.
“Volunteers completed an average of 3.6 ± 0.8 laps per test session with four trials terminated early due to threshold constraints on environmental exposures and in one case due to a significant increase in core temperature and other indications of heat strain.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationSchrack et al found that VO2 measurements by the COSMED K4b2 were not significantly different (p = 0.25) but highly correlated (r = 0.96) to traditional stationary gas exchange during steady-state walking.
“In contrast, Schrack et al 20 found that VO 2 measurements by the COSMED K4 b 2 were not significantly different (p = 0.25) but highly correlated (r = 0.96) to a traditional, stationary gas exchange during steady-state walking.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [20] Schrack, 2010, Comparison of the Cosmed K4b 2 portable metabolic system in measuring steady-state walking energy expenditure, PLoS ONE source
Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Study design and conductnone givenAll volunteers completed at least one lap in each direction during a given test session.
“However, all volunteers met the minimum requirement and completed at least one lap in each direction during a given test session.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Study design and conductnone givenThe order of external load conditions was randomized.
“The marches were separated by a minimum of 5 d and the order of the external load conditions was randomized.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationDuffield et al found that the COSMED K4b2 system overestimated VO2 during intermittent treadmill exercise compared with a laboratory metabolic cart but demonstrated satisfactory test-retest reliability.
“Similarly, Duffield et al 19 found that the COSMED K4 b 2 system overestimated VO 2 during intermittent treadmill exercise compared with a laboratory metabolic cart but noted that the COSMED K4 b 2 system demonstrated satisfactory test-retest reliability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [19] Duffield, 2004, Accuracy and reliability of a Cosmed K4b2 portable gas analysis system, J Sci Med Sport source
The authors state this as an assumption.
Predictive equations developed from steady-state data can be used to predict energy costs under dynamic conditions where activities change frequently enough that equilibrium cannot be achieved.
“An inherent assumption is that predictive equations developed from steady-state data can be used to predict energy costs under dynamic conditions where activities change frequently enough that equilibrium cannot be achieved.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There has not yet been a direct comparison between predictive equations using metabolic data collected over complex terrain.
“However, there has not yet been a direct comparison between predictive equations using metabolic data collected over complex terrain.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The aggregate viewshed application applied at a continental scale is the first time such an application has been applied at a continental scale.
“this is the first time such an application has been applied at a continental scale 86 .”
From Landscape rules predict optimal superhighways for the first peopling of sahul (2021) · cites this paper as [86]
The Complex Terrain Course section describes a 2.5-km military load-carriage course in Natick, MA, not a continental-scale viewshed analysis. Searches for “aggregate viewshed” and “viewshed application at a continental scale” found no passage addressing the claimed first-of-its-kind application. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Conflicting year for the ACSM equation
MinorThe abstract identifies the ACSM equation as from 2002, while the paper's ACSM reference is dated 2006.
“American College of Sports Medicine (2002)”
“11. American College of Sports Medicine: Guidelines for Graded Exercise Testing and Prescription, 7th Ed, Philadelphia, PA, Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 2006.”
Minetti equation is assigned inconsistent reference numbers
MinorThe predictive-equations table labels Minetti et al as reference 20, but the reference list identifies the Minetti paper as reference 13.
“Minetti et al 20 J kg m”
“13. Minetti AE, Moia C, Roi GS, Susta D, Ferretti G: Energy cost of walk- ing and running at extreme uphill and downhill slopes.”
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- American College of Sports Medicine, 2006, Guidelines for Graded Exercise Testing and Prescription
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Metadata
- Authors
- Looney, D. P., Santee, W. R., Karis, A. J., Blanchard, L. A., Rome, M. N., Carter, A. J., & Potter, A. W.
- Affiliations
- U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (US)
- Venue
- Military Medicine
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2018-05-31
- Volume
- 183
- Issue
- 9-10
- Pages
- e357-e362
- ISSN
- 0026-4075 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-613X
- OpenAlex
- W2807597249
- Cited by
- 30
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 3.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- public-domain
- Locations
- Military Medicine (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Occupational Health and Performance
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Keywords
- military load carriage, metabolic cost, energy expenditure, complex terrain, energy expenditure prediction equations, military personnel, oxygen consumption
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Energy Metabolism, Female, Humans, Male, Massachusetts, Metabolism, Military Personnel, Walking, Weight-Bearing, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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