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The mass distribution and gravitational potential of the Milky Way
Open accessAbstract
We present mass models of the Milky Way created to fit observational constraints and to be consistent with expectations from theoretical modelling. The method used to create these models is that demonstrated in our previous study, and we improve on those models by adding gas discs to the potential, considering the effects of allowing the inner slope of the halo density profile to vary, and including new observations of maser sources in the Milky Way amongst the new constraints. We provide a best-fitting model, as well as estimates of the properties of the Milky Way. Under the assumptions in our main model, we find that the Sun is R0 = 8.20 ± 0.09 kpc from the Galactic Centre, with the circular speed at the Sun being v0 = 232.8 ± 3.0 km s−1; and that the Galaxy has a total stellar mass of (54.3 ± 5.7) × 109 M⊙, a total virial mass of (1.30 ± 0.30) × 1012 M⊙ and a local dark-matter density of 0.40 ± 0.04 GeV cm−3, where the quoted uncertainties are statistical. These values are sensitive to our choice of priors and constraints. We investigate systematic uncertainties, which in some cases may be larger. For example, if we weaken our prior on R0, we find it to be 7.97 ± 0.15 kpc and that v0 = 226.8 ± 4.2 km s−1. We find that most of these properties, including the local dark-matter density, are remarkably insensitive to the assumed power-law density slope at the centre of the dark-matter halo. We find that it is unlikely that the local standard of rest differs significantly from that found under assumptions of axisymmetry. We have made code to compute the force from our potential, and to integrate orbits within it, publicly available.
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“Such studies argue that the Galactic halo has a very high concentration, typically ∼ 14 or higher”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This stellar mass is in good agreement with estimates for the MW (e.g. Bovy & Rix 2013; McMillan 2017, and Section 5)”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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“and even more flexible formulae, such as the generalised NFW profile (gNFW, which has been used to model the MW halo - McMillan 2017; Karukes et al. 2019b), struggle to describe the radial profile of the contracted halo.”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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“They correspond to an HI mass of 1 . 1 × 10 10 M ⊙ and a molecular gas mass of 10 percent of the HI mass.”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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Cites
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“As a test, we have also used the affine invariant MCMC sampler proposed byGoodman & Weare(2010), and packaged asemcee by Foreman-Mackey et al.(2013), to explore the pdf of some of our models, and found essentially identical results.”
ResultSEVEN-YEAR WILKINSON MICROWAVE ANISOTROPY PROBE(WMAP) OBSERVATIONS: COSMOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION
Komatsu, E., Smith, K. M., Dunkley, J., Bennett, C. L., Gold, B., Hinshaw, G., Jarosik, N., Larson, D., Nolta, M. R., Page, L., et al. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/2/18 · Cited by 8,802 · cited 1×
“The critical density is ρcrit = 3H2 8πG (6) where we takeH = 70.4 km s−1 Mpc−1 from Komatsu et al.(2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Structure of Cold Dark Matter Halos
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Prusti, T., de Bruijne, J. H. J., Brown, A. G. A., Vallenari, A., Babusiaux, C., Bailer‐Jones, C. A. L., Bastian, U., Biermann, M., Evans, D. W., Eyer, L., et al. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629272 · Cited by 7,350
THE SEVENTH DATA RELEASE OF THE SLOAN DIGITAL SKY SURVEY
Abazajian, K. N., Adelman-McCarthy, J. K., Agüeros, M. A., Allam, S. S., Prieto, C. A., An, D., Anderson, K. S. J., Anderson, S. F., Annis, J., Bahcall, N. A., et al. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/182/2/543 · Cited by 5,341 · cited 1×
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MethodSimulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars
Springel, V., White, S. D. M., Jenkins, A. R., Frenk, C. S., Yoshida, N., Gao, L., Navarro, J. F., Thacker, R. J., Croton, D., Helly, J. C., et al. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature03597 · Cited by 5,060 · cited 1×
“The relationship betweenM∗ and Mv was determined by ‘abundance matching’ of the galaxy stellar masses found byLi & White (2009) with the halo virial masses found in the Millennium simulations (Springel et al. 2005; Boylan-Kolchin et al. 2009).”
MethodEnsemble samplers with affine invariance
Goodman, J. B., & Weare, J. (2010) · Communications in Applied Mathematics and Computational Science · doi:10.2140/camcos.2010.5.65 · Cited by 3,075
corner.py: Scatterplot matrices in Python
Foreman-Mackey, D. T. (2016) · The Journal of Open Source Software · doi:10.21105/joss.00024 · Cited by 2,183 · cited 1×
“The corner plots were created with thecorner.py package (Foreman-Mackey 2016).”
MethodLocal kinematics and the local standard of rest
Schönrich, R. A., Binney, J. J., & Dehnen, W. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16253.x · Cited by 1,934 · cited 5×
“…a R0 in an axisymmetric approximation of the true potential (i.e. what we find in this study), and the velocity of a closed orbit,and therefore a theoretical 0 km s−1 dispersion population, in the Solar neighbourhood (which is what is found by local measurementslike that of Schönrich et al. 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
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The life cycle of the Central Molecular Zone – I. Inflow, star formation, and winds
Armillotta, L., Krumholz, M. R., Di Teodoro, E. M., & McClure-Griffiths, N. M. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2880 · Cited by 85
“For consistency with recent simulations of gas flows in the Galactic centre (Ridley et al. 2017; Sormani et al. 2018a), we use the bestfitting Milky Way potential by McMillan (2017) as modified by Ridley et al. (2017) to account for the non-axisymmetric stellar bar component.”
MethodAstrophysical uncertainties on the local dark matter distribution and direct detection experiments
Green, A. M. (2017) · Journal of Physics G Nuclear and Particle Physics · doi:10.1088/1361-6471/aa7819 · Cited by 86
A theoretical explanation for the Central Molecular Zone asymmetry
Sormani, M. C., Treß, R. G., Ridley, M., Glover, S. C. O., Klessen, R. S., Binney, J. J., Magorrian, J., & Smith, R. J. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx3258 · Cited by 94
“The axisymmetric part is derived from the work of McMillan (2017), whose potential is created to fit observational constraints and to be consistent with expectations from theoretical modelling of the MW as a whole.”
MethodLooking for ultralight dark matter near supermassive black holes
Bar, N., Blum, K., Lacroix, T., & Paolo Panci, A. (2019) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2019/07/045 · Cited by 99
“[80] P.”
Tree-ring structure of Galactic bar resonance
Chiba, R., & Schönrich, R. A. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1094 · Cited by 84
“The code used to compute the Galactic potential from McMillan (2017) is available at https://github.com/PaulMcMillan-Astro/GalPot.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMeasuring the Milky Way mass distribution in the presence of the LMC
Magnus, L. C., & Vasiliev, E. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab3726 · Cited by 85
All-sky search for short gravitational-wave bursts in the third Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo run
Abbott, R., Abbott, T. D., Acernese, F., Ackley, K., Adams, C., Adhikari, N., Adhikari, R. X., Adya, V. B., Affeldt, C., Agarwal, D., et al. (2021) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.104.122004 · Cited by 85
Benito, M., Cuoco, A., & Fabio Iocco, A. (2019) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2019/03/033 · Cited by 92
An improved test of the strong equivalence principle with the pulsar in a triple star system
Voisin, G., Cognard, I., Freire, P. C. C., Wex, N., Guillemot, L., Desvignes, G., Kramer, M., & Theureau, G. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038104 · Cited by 100
“We caution that the intrinsic spin parameters we report in Table 1 are still biased by the effect of Galactic acceleration which amounts to approximately 25% of the Shklovskii correction (according to the Galactic model of McMillan 2017).”
BackgroundThe accreted nuclear clusters of the Milky Way
Pfeffer, J., Lardo, C., Bastian, N., Saracino, S., & Kamann, S. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3407 · Cited by 86
“This is consistent with the energy ‘floor’ found for G-E/S debris at ≈ −1.8 × 105 km2 s−2 (Horta et al. 2020a), very similar to the orbital energy of l Cen of ≈ −1.85 × 105 km2 s−2 (assuming the potential from McMillan 2017), suggestive of a causal connection.”
InfluentialAn extended halo around an ancient dwarf galaxy
Chiti, A., Frebel, A., Simon, J. D., Erkal, D., Chang, L. J., Necib, L., Ji, A. P., Jerjen, H., Kim, D., & Norris, J. E. (2021) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-020-01285-w · Cited by 82
The mass of the Milky Way out to 100 kpc using halo stars
Deason, A. J., Erkal, D., Belokurov, V. A., Fattahi, A., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J. J., Pakmor, R., Xue, X.-X., Liu, C., Yang, C., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3984 · Cited by 91
Stellar streams in the Gaia era
Bonaca, A., & Price-Whelan, A. M. (2024) · New Astronomy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.newar.2024.101713 · Cited by 87
Gaia DR3 view of dynamical substructure in the stellar halo near the Sun
Dodd, E., Callingham, T. M., Helmi, A., Matsuno, T., Ruiz-Lara, T., Balbinot, E., & Lövdal, S. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244546 · Cited by 79
A hypervelocity star with a Magellanic origin
Erkal, D., Boubert, D., Gualandris, A., Evans, N. W., & Antonini, F. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2674 · Cited by 77
“The second potential that we consider is the recent MW model in McMillan (2017).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialUncertainties in the Galactic Dark Matter distribution: An update
Benito, M., Fabio Iocco, A., & Cuoco, A. (2021) · Physics of the Dark Universe · doi:10.1016/j.dark.2021.100826 · Cited by 91
“Figure 5 includes recent values obtained by global fitting of Galactic mass models to the RC [2, 49, 38, 13, 53, 8, 54, 55] and other techniques, such as fitting of the velocity distribution function, or the application of Jeans equations using global mass models [56, 57, 58, 59].”
MethodR -process enhancements of Gaia-Enceladus in GALAH DR3
Matsuno, T., Hirai, Y., Tarumi, Y., Hotokezaka, K., Tanaka, M., & Helmi, A. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202040227 · Cited by 77
Pouliasis, E., Matteo, P. D., & Haywood, M. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527346 · Cited by 79
“Most recently, the models by Smith et al. (2015), Barros et al. (2016), McMillan (2011) and McMillan (2017) have added the presence of a thick stellar disc to the Galactic potential.”
BackgroundChemo-dynamics of outer halo dwarf stars, including Gaia-Sausage and Gaia-Sequoia candidates
Monty, S., Venn, K., Lane, J., Lokhorst, D., & Yong, D. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1995 · Cited by 40
Dark matter hurricane: Measuring the S1 stream with dark matter detectors
O’Hare, C. A. J., McCabe, C., Evans, N. W., Myeong, G., & Belokurov, V. A. (2018) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.98.103006 · Cited by 73
Amarante, J. A. S., Debattista, V. P., Silva, L. J. B. E., Laporte, C. F. P., & Deg, N. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac8b0d · Cited by 74
Ibata, R., Malhan, K., Tenachi, W., Arentsen, A., Bellazzini, M., Bianchini, P., Bonifacio, P., Caffau, E., Diakogiannis, F. I., Errani, R., et al. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad382d · Cited by 108
The pattern speed of the Milky Way bar/bulge from VIRAC andGaia
Clarke, J. P., & Gerhard, O. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac603 · Cited by 78
The messy merger of a large satellite and a Milky Way-like galaxy
Koppelman, H. H., Bos, R. O. Y., & Helmi, A. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038652 · Cited by 70
“Here, En is the total energy, using the McMillan (2017) potential and circ is the circularity, defined as circ = LzLcircz , where L circ z is the angular momentum of a circular orbit with the same energy as Lz.”
MethodInfluentialDiscovery of a Gamma-Ray Black Widow Pulsar by GPU-accelerated Einstein@Home
Nieder, L., Clark, C. J., Kandel, D., Romani, R. W., Bassa, C., Allen, B., Ashok, A., Cognard, I., Fehrmann, H., Freire, P. C. C., et al. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abbc02 · Cited by 70
Testing gravity with wide binary stars like α Centauri
Banik, I., & Zhao, H. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2007 · Cited by 80
“We take the EF to point towards the Galactic centre and have a magnitude sufficient to maintain the observed Local Standard of Rest (LSR) speed of vc, = 232.8 km/s, assuming the Sun is R = 8.2 kpc from the Galactic centre (McMillan 2017).”
MethodInfluentialBroken into Pieces: ATLAS and Aliqa Uma as One Single Stream
Li, T. S., Koposov, S. E., Erkal, D., Ji, A., Shipp, N., Pace, A., Hilmi, T., Kuehn, K., Lewis, G., Mackey, D., et al. (2020) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abeb18 · Cited by 57
Multi-wavelength astronomical searches for primordial black holes
Manshanden, J., Gaggero, D., Bertone, G., Connors, R., & Ricotti, M. (2019) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2019/06/026 · Cited by 69
“For the mass distribution in the Milky Way, M(R), we consider the recent state-of-theart model taken from [32].”
Extended halo of NGC 2682 (M 67) from Gaia DR2
Carrera, R., Pasquato, M., Vallenari, A., Balaguer-Núñez, L., Cantat-Gaudin, T., Mapelli, M., Bragaglia, A., Bossini, D., Jordi, C., Galadí-Enríquez, D., et al. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935599 · Cited by 69
“M = 1012 M⊙ (McMillan 2017) and this uncertainty is compounded by the fact that we want to consider only the mass within NGC 2682 orbit.”
BackgroundModelling the Tucana III stream - a close passage with the LMC
Erkal, D., Li, T. S., Koposov, S. E., Belokurov, V. A., Balbinot, E., Bechtol, K., Buncher, B., Drlica-Wagner, A., Kuehn, K. W., Marshall, J. L., et al. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2518 · Cited by 68
“…at 8.7 kpc van der Marel & Kallivayalil 2014) modelled as a point mass, the force from the LMC during this closest approach is roughly 39 per cent, 27 per cent of the force from our Galaxy given the MW potential used in this work (MWPotential2014 from Bovy 2015) and McMillan (2017), respectively.”
MethodInfluentialThe star formation history of Upper Scorpius and Ophiuchus
Miret-Roig, N., Galli, P. A. B., Olivares, J., Bouy, H., Alves, J., & Barrado, D. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244709 · Cited by 68
Xiang, M., Shi, J., Liu, X.-W., Yuan, H., Chen, B., Huang, Y., Wang, C., Wu, Y., Tian, Z., Huo, Z., et al. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aad237 · Cited by 71
Recio-Blanco, A., Kordopatis, G., de Laverny, P., Palicio, P. A., Spagna, A., Spina, L., Katz, D., Fiorentin, P. R., Poggio, E., McMillan, P. J., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243511 · Cited by 74
Self-citationMilky Way's Eccentric Constituents with Gaia, APOGEE, and GALAH
Myeong, G., Belokurov, V. A., Aguado, D. S., Evans, N. W., Caldwell, N., & Bradley, J. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac8d68 · Cited by 68
Pulsar J1411+2551: A Low-mass Double Neutron Star System
Martinez, J. G., Stovall, K., Freire, P. C. C., Deneva, J. S., Tauris, T. M., Ridolfi, A., Wex, N., Jenet, F. A., McLaughlin, M. A., & Bagchi, M. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa9d87 · Cited by 67
“…9 http://tempo.sourceforge.net/ subtract the term due to the difference in Galactic acceleration between the PSR J1411+2551 and the solar system, −1.3 × 10−20 s s−1 (McMillan 2017), to derive a maximum intrinsic P 10.9 10 s sint 20 1= ´ - -˙ .”
BackgroundInfluentialSimon, J. D., Li, T. S., Erkal, D., Pace, A. B., Drlica-Wagner, A., James, D. J., Marshall, J. L., Bechtol, K., Hansen, T. T., Kuehn, K. W., et al. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab7ccb · Cited by 67
Dynamically Tagged Groups of Very Metal-poor Halo Stars from the HK and Hamburg/ESO Surveys
Limberg, G., Rossi, S., Beers, T. C., Perottoni, H. D., Pérez-Villegas, Á., Santucci, R. M., Abuchaim, Y., Placco, V. M., Lee, Y. S., Christlieb, N., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abcb87 · Cited by 70
Albert, A., Andre, M. L., Anghinolfi, M., Ardid, M., Aubert, J. J., Aublin, J., Baret, B., Basa, S., Belhorma, B., Bertin, V., et al. (2020) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.102.082002 · Cited by 66
Milky Way dynamics in light of Gaia
Hunt, J. D., & Vasiliev, E. (2025) · New Astronomy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.newar.2024.101721 · Cited by 87
Velocity substructure from Gaia and direct searches for dark matter
O’Hare, C. A. J., Evans, N. W., McCabe, C., Myeong, G., & Belokurov, V. A. (2020) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.101.023006 · Cited by 66
The Large-scale Ionization Cones in the Galaxy
Bland‐Hawthorn, J., Maloney, P. R., Sutherland, R. S., Groves, B. A., Guglielmo, M., Li, W., Curzons, A. N., Cecil, G. N., & Fox, A. J. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab44c8 · Cited by 71
Constraining the Milky Way Mass Profile with Phase-space Distribution of Satellite Galaxies
Li, Z.-Z., Qian, Y.-Z., Han, J., Li, T. S., Wang, W., & Jing, Y. P. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab84f0 · Cited by 77
Public Release of A-SLOTH: Ancient Stars and Local Observables by Tracing Halos
Hartwig, T., Magg, M., Chen, L., Tarumi, Y., Bromm, V., Glover, S. C. O., Ji, A. P., Klessen, R. S., Latif, M. A., Volonteri, M., et al. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac7150 · Cited by 63
Absolute Ages and Distances of 22 GCs Using Monte Carlo Main-sequence Fitting
O’Malley, E. M., Gilligan, C., & Chaboyer, B. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa6574 · Cited by 63
“We choose to use an updated solar distance from the Galactic center of R0=8.20±0.09 kpc and circular velocity of v0=232.0±3.0 km s −1 from McMillan (2017) and a total back integration time of 13 Gyr.”
MethodInfluentialAnatomy of Eddington-like inversion methods in the context of dark matter searches
Lacroix, T., Stref, M., & Lavalle, J. (2018) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2018/09/040 · Cited by 63
A guided map to the spiral arms in the galactic disk of the Milky Way
Vallée, J. P. (2017) · Astronomical Review · doi:10.1080/21672857.2017.1379459 · Cited by 66
“2 233 main mass model mcmillan [119] – table 2 8.”
BackgroundGravothermal evolution of dark matter halos with differential elastic scattering
Yang, D., & Yu, H.-B. (2022) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2022/09/077 · Cited by 62
“We develop an SIDM module and implement it to the public GADGET-2 program [57, 58], following the instructions in [59].”
MethodChae, K. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ace101 · Cited by 62
Evidence of a Dwarf Galaxy Stream Populating the Inner Milky Way Halo
Malhan, K., Yuan, Z., Ibata, R., Arentsen, A., Bellazzini, M., & Martin, N. F. (2021) · HAL · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac1675 · Cited by 61
“To compute orbits, we adopted the Galactic potential model of McMillan (2017).”
MethodNuclear spirals in the inner Milky Way
Ridley, M., Sormani, M. C., Treß, R. G., Magorrian, J., & Klessen, R. S. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx944 · Cited by 61
“As a starting point we use the best fitting potential of McMillan (2017).”
MethodInfluentialCo-formation of the thin and thick discs revealed by APOGEE-DR16 and Gaia -DR2
Silva, L. J. B. E., Debattista, V. P., Nidever, D. L., Amarante, J. A. S., & Garver, B. R. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3966 · Cited by 60
“We use the phase-space coordinates of our sample as initial conditions and, using the agama package (Vasiliev 2019), integrate the orbits in the Galactic potential model of McMillan (2017).”
MethodEryn: a multipurpose sampler for Bayesian inference
Karnesis, N., Katz, M. L., Korsakova, N., Gair, J. R., & Stergioulas, N. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2939 · Cited by 60
Trapped orbits and solar-neighbourhood kinematics
Binney, J. J. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1103 · Cited by 59
“The axisymmetric component is the potential fitted by McMillan (2017) to a variety of data tweaked to yield R0 = 8.27 kpc and Θ0 = 239 kms −1 by increasing the central surface density and scale length of the stellar disc from 8.96× 108 to 9.2× 108 M⊙ kpc−2 and from 2.5 to 2.6 kpc.”
MethodInfluentialCMZoom: Survey Overview and First Data Release
Battersby, C., Keto, E., Walker, D. L., Barnes, A. T., Callanan, D., Ginsburg, A. G., Hatchfield, H. P., Henshaw, J. D., Kauffmann, J., Kruijssen, J. M. D., et al. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aba18e · Cited by 59
The stellar mass distribution of the Milky Way’s bar: an analytical model
Sormani, M. C., Gerhard, O., Portail, M., Vasiliev, E., & Clarke, J. P. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slac046 · Cited by 59
Sormani, M. C., Treß, R. G., Glover, S. C. O., Klessen, R. S., Barnes, A. T., Battersby, C., Clark, P. C., Hatchfield, H. P., & Smith, R. J. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2054 · Cited by 62
“The axisymmetric part is derived from the work of McMillan (2017), whose potential is created to fit observational constraints and to be consistent with expectations from theoretical modelling of the Milky Way as a whole.”
MethodKordopatis, G., Schultheis, M., McMillan, P. J., Palicio, P. A., de Laverny, P., Recio-Blanco, A., Creevey, O. L., Álvarez, M. A., Andrae, R., Poggio, E., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244283 · Cited by 58
Self-citationAbundance and temperature of the outer hot circumgalactic medium
Ponti, G., Zheng, X., Locatelli, N. T., Bianchi, S., Zhang, Y., Anastasopoulou, K., Comparat, J., Dennerl, K., Freyberg, M. J., Haberl, F., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243992 · Cited by 59
Hypervelocity stars in the Gaia era
Irrgang, A., Kreuzer, S., & Heber, U. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833874 · Cited by 58
“These results are in agreement with those of Erkal et al. (2018), who used different Galactic potentials (Bovy 2015; McMillan 2017) and LMC parameters.”
ResultStrong constraints on the gravitational law from Gaia DR3 wide binaries
Banik, I., Pittordis, C., Sutherland, W. J., Famaey, B., Ibata, R., Mieske, S., & Zhao, H. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3393 · Cited by 57
The tidal remnant of an unusually metal-poor globular cluster
Wan, Z., Lewis, G. F., Li, T. S., Simpson, J. D., Martell, S. L., Zucker, D. B., Mould, J. R., Erkal, D., Pace, A. B., Mackey, D., et al. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2483-6 · Cited by 63
Gudin, D., Shank, D., Beers, T. C., Yuan, Z., Limberg, G., Roederer, I. U., Placco, V. M., Holmbeck, E. M., Dietz, S., Rasmussen, K. C., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abd7ed · Cited by 60
“We derive orbital energies and other integrals of motion (actions) for the RPE sample, along with other dynamical parameters, using the AGAMA package (Vasiliev 2018) and the MW2017 potential (McMillan 2017).16 These results are listed in Table 4.”
MethodRecent advances in the determination of some Galactic constants in the Milky Way
Vallée, J. P. (2017) · Astrophysics and Space Science · doi:10.1007/s10509-017-3058-3 · Cited by 56
Assessing distances and consistency of kinematics in Gaia/TGAS
Schönrich, R. A., & Aumer, M. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2189 · Cited by 55
“These values are chosen in concordance with Schönrich (2012), McMillan (2011, 2017), and Schönrich, Binney & Dehnen (2010).”
MethodGuo, Y. J., Freire, P. C. C., Guillemot, L., Krämer, M., Zhu, W., Wex, N., McKee, J. W., Deller, A. T., Ding, H., Kaplan, D. L., et al. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141450 · Cited by 60
Search for dark matter towards the Galactic Centre with 11 years of ANTARES data
Albert, A., Andre, M. L., Anghinolfi, M., Anton, G., Ardid, M., Aubert, J. J., Aublin, J., Baret, B., Basa, S., Belhorma, B., et al. (2020) · Physics Letters B · doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2020.135439 · Cited by 68
“For the sake of illustrating those DM density uncertainties, other two cases are considered: the profile from the recent study of McMillan [13] giving an internal power law r0.”
BackgroundMethodA Measurement of the Galactic Plane Mass Density from Binary Pulsar Accelerations
Chakrabarti, S., Chang, P., Lam, M. T., Vigeland, S. J., & Quillen, A. C. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abd635 · Cited by 54
“…principle (e.g., Freire et al. 2012; Archibald et al. 2018), and the time-variability of the gravitational constant, G (Damour et al. 1988; Lazaridis et al. 2009; Zhu et al. 2019), while assuming a Galactic potential that is derived from kinematical analysis (for example, McMillan 2017).”
MethodTidal disruption of dwarf spheroidal galaxies: the strange case of Crater II
Sanders, J. L., Evans, N. W., & Dehnen, W. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1278 · Cited by 54
“…in the two transverse velocity components from an uncorrelated Gaussian with variance V2 and integrate the orbits backwards for times t (sampled from a uniform distribution from 0 to 13.7 Gyr and choosing the time of the earliest apocentric passage) in the Milky Way potential from McMillan (2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialExploring the Galaxy’s halo and very metal-weak thick disc with SkyMapper and Gaia DR2
Cordoni, G., Costa, G. S. D., Yong, D., Mackey, D., Marino, A. F., Monty, S., Nordlander, T., Norris, J. E., Asplund, M., Bessell, M. S., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3417 · Cited by 56
“As discussed in Section 3.2, each orbit has been integrated in a McMillan2017 potential (McMillan 2017) backward and forward in time for 2Gyr.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe MSPSRπ catalogue: VLBA astrometry of 18 millisecond pulsars
Ding, H., Deller, A. T., Stappers, B. W., Lazio, T. J. W., Kaplan, D. L., Chatterjee, S., Brisken, W., Cordes, J. M., Freire, P. C. C., Fonseca, E., et al. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3725 · Cited by 52
Implications of hydrodynamical simulations for the interpretation of direct dark matter searches
Bozorgnia, N., & Bertone, G. (2017) · International Journal of Modern Physics A · doi:10.1142/s0217751x17300162 · Cited by 59
Modelling the Milky Way as a dry Galaxy
Fujii, M. S., Bédorf, J., Baba, J., & Zwart, S. P. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2747 · Cited by 54
“These give ah ∼ 15–30 kpc. Recently it was suggested that c ∼ 10 (ah ∼ 25 kpc) (Correa et al. 2015), but theoretical modeling, based on observations, suggest smaller values such as ah = 19.0±4.9 kpc (McMillan 2017) and ah = 14.39+1.30−1.15 kpc (Huang et al. 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialHow low does it go? Too few Galactic satellites with standard reionization quenching
Graus, A. S., Bullock, J. S., Kelley, T., Boylan-Kolchin, M., Garrison-Kimmel, S., & Qi, Y. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1992 · Cited by 58
“The z = 0 values for the properties of the Milky Way bulge, stellar, and gas disks (including both masses and scale heights) were taken from Bland-Hawthorn & Gerhard (2016) and McMillan (2017).”
MethodPSR J2234+0611: A New Laboratory for Stellar Evolution
Stovall, K., Freire, P. C. C., Antoniadis, J., Bagchi, M., Deneva, J. S., Garver-Daniels, N., Martinez, J. G., McLaughlin, M. A., Arzoumanian, Z., Blumer, H., et al. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaf37d · Cited by 52
Radialization of Satellite Orbits in Galaxy Mergers
Vasiliev, E., Belokurov, V. A., & Evans, N. W. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac4fbc · Cited by 51
Gravity experiments with radio pulsars
Freire, P. C. C., & Wex, N. (2024) · Living Reviews in Relativity · doi:10.1007/s41114-024-00051-y · Cited by 74
The GALAH survey: A census of lithium-rich giant stars
Martell, S. L., Simpson, J. D., Balasubramaniam, A. G., Buder, S., Sharma, S., Hon, M., Stello, D., Ting, Y.-S., Asplund, M., Bland‐Hawthorn, J., et al. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1356 · Cited by 58
The kinematic properties of Milky Way stellar halo populations
Lane, J., Bovy, J., & Mackereth, J. T. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab3755 · Cited by 50
The Atari Disk, a Metal-poor Stellar Population in the Disk System of the Milky Way
Mardini, M. K., Frebel, A., Chiti, A., Meiron, Y., Brauer, K., & Ou, X. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac8102 · Cited by 49
Median Statistics Estimate of the Distance to the Galactic Center
Camarillo, T., Mathur, V., Mitchell, T., & Ratra, B. (2018) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/aa9b26 · Cited by 49
On testing CDM and geometry-driven Milky Way rotation curve models with Gaia DR2
Crosta, M., Giammaria, M., Lattanzi, M. G., & Poggio, E. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1511 · Cited by 71
Spitoni, E., Recio-Blanco, A., de Laverny, P., Palicio, P. A., Kordopatis, G., Schultheis, M., Contursi, G., Poggio, E., Romano, D., & Matteucci, F. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244349 · Cited by 48
Antoja, T., Ramos, P., García-Conde, B., Bernet, M., Laporte, C. F. P., & Katz, D. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245518 · Cited by 50
More than just a wrinkle: a wave-like pattern in Ug versus Lz from Gaia data
Friske, J. K. S., & Schönrich, R. A. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2951 · Cited by 48
“These values have been taken from Schönrich (2012) and Schönrich et al. (2010) in accordance with Gillessen et al. (2009) and McMillan (2017).”
MethodResultIdentifying stellar streams in Gaia DR2 with data mining techniques
Borsato, N. W., Martell, S. L., & Simpson, J. D. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz3479 · Cited by 48
“…velocity correction values of (U,V,W) = (11.1+0.69−0.75, 12.24 +0.47 −0.47, 7.25 +0.37 −0.36) kms −1 supplied by Schönrich et al. (2010) and Bovy (2015) to adjust the circular velocity and Solar radius while also placing all stars in the Local Standard of Rest (McMillan 2017) VLSR = 232 kms−1.”
BackgroundInfluentialDe, K., Kasliwal, M. M., Hankins, M., Sokoloski, J. L., Adams, S. M., Ashley, M. C. B., Babul, A., Bagdasaryan, A., Delacroix, A., Dekany, R., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abeb75 · Cited by 48
Génolini, Y., Boudaud, M., Cirelli, M., Derome, L., Lavalle, J., Maurin, D. A., Salati, P., & Weinrich, N. (2021) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.104.083005 · Cited by 47
LAMOST meets Gaia : The Galactic open clusters
Fu, X., Bragaglia, A., Liu, C., Zhang, H., Xu, Y., Wang, K., Zhang, Z.-Y., Zhong, J., Chang, J., Li, L., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243590 · Cited by 47
Constraining the Milky Way mass with hypervelocity stars
Fragione, G., & Loeb, A. (2017) · New Astronomy · doi:10.1016/j.newast.2017.03.002 · Cited by 47
Origin of the Local Group satellite planes
Banik, I., O’Ryan, D., & Zhao, H. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty919 · Cited by 49
“Given the nearly radial MW–M31 orbit, determining ĥLG also requires accurate knowledge of the motion of the Sun with respect to the MW, in particular the velocity of the Local Standard of Rest (McMillan 2017).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA closer look at the spur, blob, wiggle, and gaps in GD-1
de Boer, T. J. L., Erkal, D., & Gieles, M. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa917 · Cited by 47
“We choose to model the Milky Way using the MWPotential2014 from Bovy (2015) since it is computationally cheaper than the potential in McMillan (2017).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWeighing the Galactic disk using phase-space spirals
Widmark, A., Laporte, C. F. P., de Salas, P. F., & Monari, G. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141466 · Cited by 47
Substructure in the stellar halo near the Sun
Ruiz-Lara, T., Matsuno, T., Lövdal, S., Helmi, A., Dodd, E., & Koppelman, H. H. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243061 · Cited by 49
New Limits on Axionic Dark Matter from the Magnetar PSR J1745-2900
Darling, J. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abb23f · Cited by 46
Cerny, W., Simon, J., Li, T.-S., Drlica-Wagner, A., Pace, A., Mart'inez-V'azquez, C., Riley, A., Mutlu-Pakdİl, B., Mau, S., Ferguson, P., et al. (2022) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aca1c3 · Cited by 39
The origin and fate of the Gaia phase-space snail
Tremaine, S. D., Frankel, N., & Bovy, J. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad577 · Cited by 46
A model for a dark matter core at the Galactic Centre
Boshkayev, K., & Malafarina, D. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz219 · Cited by 47
“(McMillan 2017) to describe the DM density in the bulge, which is given by ρ(r) = ρ0 (r1 r )α e−(r/r0) β , (4) where α, β, r1 are again model dependent parameters.”
BackgroundNitschai, M. S., Cappellari, M., & Neumayer, N. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1128 · Cited by 47
“We include the mass density of both the H I and H2 gas in the disc of the Milky Way (equation 4 in McMillan 2017).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialTowards robust constraints on axion dark matter using PSR J1745-2900
Battye, R. A., Darling, J., McDonald, J. I., & Srinivasan, S. (2022) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.105.l021305 · Cited by 46
Substructure in the stellar halo near the Sun
Lövdal, S., Ruiz-Lara, T., Koppelman, H. H., Matsuno, T., Dodd, E., & Helmi, A. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243060 · Cited by 46
Metadata
- Authors
- McMillan, P. J.
- Affiliations
- Lund University (SE)
- Corresponding author
- McMillan, Paul J.
- ORCID
- McMillan, Paul J.
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2016-10-26
- Volume
- 465
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 76-94
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W2485876312
- Cited by
- 1,099
- References
- 128
- Citations by year
- 2026: 104 · 2025: 165 · 2024: 154 · 2023: 126 · 2022: 120 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 30.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Lund University Publications (Lund University) (submittedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- Milky Way mass distribution, gravitational potential, dark matter halos, stellar mass, virial mass, local dark matter density, local standard of rest, halo density profiles, gas discs, orbit integration, axial symmetry
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