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The mass distribution and gravitational potential of the Milky Way
Open accessAbstract
We present mass models of the Milky Way created to fit observational constraints and to be consistent with expectations from theoretical modelling. The method used to create these models is that demonstrated in our previous study, and we improve on those models by adding gas discs to the potential, considering the effects of allowing the inner slope of the halo density profile to vary, and including new observations of maser sources in the Milky Way amongst the new constraints. We provide a best-fitting model, as well as estimates of the properties of the Milky Way. Under the assumptions in our main model, we find that the Sun is R0 = 8.20 ± 0.09 kpc from the Galactic Centre, with the circular speed at the Sun being v0 = 232.8 ± 3.0 km s−1; and that the Galaxy has a total stellar mass of (54.3 ± 5.7) × 109 M⊙, a total virial mass of (1.30 ± 0.30) × 1012 M⊙ and a local dark-matter density of 0.40 ± 0.04 GeV cm−3, where the quoted uncertainties are statistical. These values are sensitive to our choice of priors and constraints. We investigate systematic uncertainties, which in some cases may be larger. For example, if we weaken our prior on R0, we find it to be 7.97 ± 0.15 kpc and that v0 = 226.8 ± 4.2 km s−1. We find that most of these properties, including the local dark-matter density, are remarkably insensitive to the assumed power-law density slope at the centre of the dark-matter halo. We find that it is unlikely that the local standard of rest differs significantly from that found under assumptions of axisymmetry. We have made code to compute the force from our potential, and to integrate orbits within it, publicly available.
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“Such studies argue that the Galactic halo has a very high concentration, typically ∼ 14 or higher”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This stellar mass is in good agreement with estimates for the MW (e.g. Bovy & Rix 2013; McMillan 2017, and Section 5)”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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“and even more flexible formulae, such as the generalised NFW profile (gNFW, which has been used to model the MW halo - McMillan 2017; Karukes et al. 2019b), struggle to describe the radial profile of the contracted halo.”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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“They correspond to an HI mass of 1 . 1 × 10 10 M ⊙ and a molecular gas mass of 10 percent of the HI mass.”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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Citations
Cites
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ResultSEVEN-YEAR WILKINSON MICROWAVE ANISOTROPY PROBE(WMAP) OBSERVATIONS: COSMOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION
Komatsu, E., Smith, K. M., Dunkley, J., Bennett, C. L., Gold, B., Hinshaw, G., Jarosik, N., Larson, D., Nolta, M. R., Page, L., et al. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/2/18 · Cited by 8,802 · cited 1×
“The critical density is ρcrit = 3H2 8πG (6) where we takeH = 70.4 km s−1 Mpc−1 from Komatsu et al.(2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Structure of Cold Dark Matter Halos
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THE SEVENTH DATA RELEASE OF THE SLOAN DIGITAL SKY SURVEY
Abazajian, K. N., Adelman-McCarthy, J. K., Agüeros, M. A., Allam, S. S., Prieto, C. A., An, D., Anderson, K. S. J., Anderson, S. F., Annis, J., Bahcall, N. A., et al. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/182/2/543 · Cited by 5,341 · cited 1×
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MethodSimulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars
Springel, V., White, S. D. M., Jenkins, A. R., Frenk, C. S., Yoshida, N., Gao, L., Navarro, J. F., Thacker, R. J., Croton, D., Helly, J. C., et al. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature03597 · Cited by 5,060 · cited 1×
“The relationship betweenM∗ and Mv was determined by ‘abundance matching’ of the galaxy stellar masses found byLi & White (2009) with the halo virial masses found in the Millennium simulations (Springel et al. 2005; Boylan-Kolchin et al. 2009).”
MethodEnsemble samplers with affine invariance
Goodman, J. B., & Weare, J. (2010) · Communications in Applied Mathematics and Computational Science · doi:10.2140/camcos.2010.5.65 · Cited by 3,075
corner.py: Scatterplot matrices in Python
Foreman-Mackey, D. T. (2016) · The Journal of Open Source Software · doi:10.21105/joss.00024 · Cited by 2,183 · cited 1×
“The corner plots were created with thecorner.py package (Foreman-Mackey 2016).”
MethodLocal kinematics and the local standard of rest
Schönrich, R. A., Binney, J. J., & Dehnen, W. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16253.x · Cited by 1,934 · cited 5×
“…a R0 in an axisymmetric approximation of the true potential (i.e. what we find in this study), and the velocity of a closed orbit,and therefore a theoretical 0 km s−1 dispersion population, in the Solar neighbourhood (which is what is found by local measurementslike that of Schönrich et al. 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Naiman, J., Pillepich, A., Springel, V., Ramirez-Ruiz, E., Torrey, P., Vogelsberger, M., Pakmor, R., Nelson, D., Marinacci, F., Hernquist, L., et al. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty618 · Cited by 693
“First, we select for galaxies with a total halo mass, M200,crit, in the range (0.6−2)×1012 M (Eadie et al. 2015; McMillan 2017; Zaritsky & Courtois 2017), which results in approximately 2000 galaxies.”
MethodInfluentialThe merger that led to the formation of the Milky Way’s inner stellar halo and thick disk
Helmi, A., Babusiaux, C., Koppelman, H. H., Massari, D., Veljanoski, J., & Brown, A. G. A. (2018) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0625-x · Cited by 1,235
Formation of Double Neutron Star Systems
Tauris, T. M., Kramer, M., Freire, P. C. C., Wex, N., Janka, H., Langer, N., Podsiadlowski, P., Bozzo, E., Chaty, S., Kruckow, M. U., et al. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa7e89 · Cited by 693
“Finally, to convert the SSB velocity vector to the LSR we have used the Galactic model of McMillan (2017).”
MethodHelmi, A., van Leeuwen, F., McMillan, P. J., Massari, D., Antoja, T., Robin, A. C., Lindegren, L., Bastian, U., Arenou, F., Babusiaux, C., et al. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832698 · Cited by 648
“We have found relatively small differences in the orbits in three different realistic Galactic potentials when we integrated over short timescales (the potentials are based on Allen & San- Article number, page 22 of 49 tillan 1991; Robin et al. 2003; McMillan 2017).”
InfluentialSelf-citationThe GALAH+ survey: Third data release
Buder, S., Sharma, S., Kos, J., Amarsi, A. M., Nordlander, T., LIND, K., Martell, S. L., Asplund, M., Bland‐Hawthorn, J., Casey, A. R., et al. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1242 · Cited by 680
“For our calculations we use the best fitting axisymmetric potential by McMillan (2017) with a Solar radius of 8.21 kpc, consistent with the latest measurement by Gravity Collaboration et al. (2019) of 8.178 ± 0.013stat.”
MethodInfluentialAGAMA: action-based galaxy modelling architecture
Vasiliev, E. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2672 · Cited by 627
Evidence for two early accretion events that built the Milky Way stellar halo
Myeong, G. C., Vasiliev, E., Iorio, G., Evans, N. W., & Belokurov, V (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1770 · Cited by 505
“The potential used to represent the Milky Way is the one recommended as the best amongst the suite studied by McMillan (2017).”
MethodA dynamically young and perturbed Milky Way disk
Antoja, T., Helmi, A., Romero-Gómez, M., Katz, D., Babusiaux, C., Drimmel, R., Evans, D. W., Figueras, F., Poggio, E., Reylé, C., et al. (2018) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0510-7 · Cited by 498
Gaia EDR3 view on galactic globular clusters
Vasiliev, E., & Baumgardt, H. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1475 · Cited by 492
“…properties of the entire population of globular clusters: semimajor axis, eccentricity and inclination, computed in two variants of static Milky Way potentials: McMillan (2017) or Bovy (2015) (these properties remain qualitatively similar if we use other reasonable choices for the potential).”
MethodOrigin of the system of globular clusters in the Milky Way
Massari, D., Koppelman, H. H., & Helmi, A. (2019) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936135 · Cited by 441
“We used the AGAMA package (Vasiliev 2019b) with the McMillan (2017) potential to compute GCs orbital parameters like the apocenter (apo), maximum height from the disc (Zmax), and eccentricity (ecc).”
MethodInfluentialBaumgardt, H., Hilker, M., Sollima, A., & Bellini, A. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2997 · Cited by 452
“As a check of the robustness of our results, we also calculated cluster orbits using the Milky Way models of Johnston, Spergel & Hernquist (1995) and the best-fitting model of McMillan (2017), but found only little difference in the final results compared to the Irrgang et al. model.”
ResultEvidence from the H3 Survey That the Stellar Halo Is Entirely Comprised of Substructure
Naidu, R. P., Conroy, C., Bonaca, A., Johnson, B. D., 丁, Y.-S. 源. T., Caldwell, N., Zaritsky, D., & Cargile, P. A. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abaef4 · Cited by 449
The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2
Cautun, M., Benítez-Llambay, A., Deason, A. J., Frenk, C. S., Fattahi, A., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J. J., Oman, K. A., Navarro, J. F., & Simpson, C. M. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1017 · Cited by 332
“We show that the contracted DM halo cannot be modelled as a pure NFW profile and even more flexible formulae, such as the generalised NFW profile (gNFW, which has been used to model the MW halo – McMillan 2017; Karukes et al. 2019), struggle to describe the radial profile of the contracted halo.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe Milky Way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2
Cautun, M., Benitez-Llambay, A., Deason, A. J., Frenk, C. S., Fattahi, A., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J. J., Oman, K. A., Navarro, J. F., & Simpson, C. M. (2019) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1911.04557 · Cited by 335
“We show that the contracted DM halo cannot be modelled as a pure NFW profile and even more flexible formulae, such as the generalised NFW profile (gNFW, which has been used to model the MW halo – McMillan 2017; Karukes et al. 2019), struggle to describe the radial profile of the contracted halo.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe second data release from the European Pulsar Timing Array
Antoniadis, J., Babak, S., Nielsen, A.-S. B., Bassa, C., Berthereau, A., Bonetti, M., Bortolas, E., Brook, P. R., Burgay, M., Caballero, R. N., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346841 · Cited by 308
Origin of the system of globular clusters in the Milky Way
Massari, D., Koppelman, H. H., & Helmi, A. (2019) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936135/pdf · Cited by 306
The merger that led to the formation of the Milky Way's inner stellar halo and thick disk
Helmi, A., Babusiaux, C., Koppelman, H. H., Massari, D., Veljanoski, J., & Brown, A. G. A. (2018) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 287
Tango for three: Sagittarius, LMC, and the Milky Way
Vasiliev, E., Belokurov, V., & Erkal, D. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3673 · Cited by 285
“The normalization of the halo density profile is chosen in such a way as to produce a circular velocity at the Solar radius vcirc(R) ≡ √ R∂Φ/∂R close to 235 km s−1– a value well constrained by many recent studies, and matching McMillan (2017).”
MethodProper motions and dynamics of the Milky Way globular cluster system fromGaiaDR2
Vasiliev, E. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz171 · Cited by 326
“We allow the latter two to vary in a rather limited range, inspired by the best-fit potential suggested in McMillan (2017): Mbulge = 9 × 109 M , Mdisc = 5.5 × 1010 M , both with relative uncertainty of 10%.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialStellar Streams Discovered in the Dark Energy Survey
Shipp, N., Drlica-Wagner, A., Balbinot, E., Ferguson, P., Erkal, D., Li, T. S., Bechtol, K., Belokurov, V., Buncher, B., Carollo, D., et al. (2018) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aacdab · Cited by 205
Markov Chain Monte Carlo Methods for Bayesian Data Analysis in Astronomy
Sharma, S. (2017) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082214-122339 · Cited by 298
“Galactic masers associated with high mass star forming regions are very good tracers of the Milky Way disc which makes them excellent candidates for studying the potential of the Milky Way (Reid et al. 2009; McMillan 2011; Reid et al. 2014; McMillan 2017).”
BackgroundMethodStrong-Field Gravity Tests with the Double Pulsar
Kramer, M., Stairs, I. H., Manchester, R. N., Wex, N., Deller, A. T., Coles, W. A., Ali, M., Burgay, M., Camilo, F., Cognard, I., et al. (2021) · Physical Review X · doi:10.1103/physrevx.11.041050 · Cited by 336
“[130], including the components for the peculiar velocity of the Sun ðU⊙; V⊙; W⊙Þ 1⁄4 ð8.”
BackgroundInfluentialMultiple retrograde substructures in the Galactic halo: A shattered view of Galactic history
Koppelman, H. H., Helmi, A., Massari, D., Price-Whelan, A. M., & Starkenburg, T. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936738 · Cited by 248
“We use the implementation of the McMillan (2017) potential in AGAMA (Vasiliev 2019) to calculate orbital parameters such as the total energy (En), eccentricity (ecc), circularity (circ), apocentre (apo), and pericentre (peri).”
MethodInfluentialDark matter heats up in dwarf galaxies
Read, J. I., Walker, M. G., & Steger, P. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty3404 · Cited by 263
Horta, D., Schiavon, R. P., Mackereth, J. T., Pfeffer, J., Mason, A. C., Kisku, S. S., Fragkoudi, F., Prieto, C. A., Cunha, K., Hasselquist, S., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2987 · Cited by 234
“MNRAS 500, 1385–1403 (2021) D ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nras/article/500/1/1385/5991050 by guest on 13 D ecem ber 2020 2018), and employing a McMillan (2017) potential.”
MethodVoyager 1 e± Further Constrain Primordial Black Holes as Dark Matter
Boudaud, M., & Cirelli, M. (2019) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.122.041104 · Cited by 254
Bovy, J., Leung, H. W., Hunt, J. D., Mackereth, J. T., García-Hernández, D. A., & Roman–Lopes, A. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2891 · Cited by 214
Myeong, G. C., Evans, N. W., Belokurov, V., Sanders, J. L., & Koposov, S. E. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aad7f7 · Cited by 213
Refinement of the standard halo model for dark matter searches in light of the Gaia Sausage
Evans, N. W., O’Hare, C. A. J., & McCabe, C. (2019) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.99.023012 · Cited by 255
Hunting for the Dark Matter Wake Induced by the Large Magellanic Cloud
Garavito-Camargo, N., Besla, G., Laporte, C., Johnston, K., G'omez, F., & Watkins, L. (2019) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab32eb · Cited by 145
A Sun-like star orbiting a black hole
El-Badry, K., Rix, H., Quataert, E., Howard, A. W., Isaacson, H. T., Fuller, J., Hawkins, K., Breivik, K., Wong, K. W. K., Rodriguez, A. C., et al. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3140 · Cited by 205
The hidden giant: discovery of an enormous Galactic dwarf satellite in Gaia DR2
Torrealba, G., Belokurov, V. A., Koposov, S. E., Li, T. S., Walker, M. G., Sanders, J. L., Geringer-Sameth, A., Zucker, D. B., Kuehn, K. W., Evans, N. W., et al. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1624 · Cited by 220
“We opt for a fixed time-independent axisymmetric Milky Way potential from McMillan (2017),4 place the dwarf at apocentre ∼13 Gyr ago and integrate forwards.”
MethodNelson, D., Kauffmann, G., Pillepich, A., Genel, S., Springel, V., Pakmor, R., Hernquist, L., Weinberger, R., Torrey, P., Vogelsberger, M., et al. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty656 · Cited by 118
“The observationally constrained total stellar plus cold gas mass is ∼ 6 − 7 × 1010 M (McMillan 2017), leaving between 4×1010 M and 2.5×1011 M total baryonic mass expected to reside in the warm/hot circumgalactic medium.”
BackgroundInfluentialConstraining Primordial Black Hole Abundance with the Galactic 511 keV Line
DeRocco, W., & Graham, P. W. (2019) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.123.251102 · Cited by 205
One Large Blob and Many Streams Frosting the nearby Stellar Halo in Gaia DR2
Koppelman, H. H., Helmi, A., & Veljanoski, J. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aac882 · Cited by 172
The Third Fermi Large Area Telescope Catalog of Gamma-Ray Pulsars
Smith, D. A., Abdollahi, S., Ajello, M., Bailes, M., Baldini, L., Ballet, J., Baring, M. G., Bassa, C., Gonzalez, J. B., Bellazzini, R., et al. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acee67 · Cited by 176
Multiple retrograde substructures in the Galactic halo: A shattered view of Galactic history
Koppelman, H. H., Helmi, A., Massari, D., Price-Whelan, A. M., & Starkenburg, T. (2019) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936738/pdf · Cited by 199
Malhan, K., Ibata, R., Sharma, S., Famaey, B., Bellazzini, M., Carlberg, R. G., D’Souza, R., Yuan, Z., Martin, N. F., & Thomas, G. F. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac4d2a · Cited by 172
Myeong, G., Evans, N. W., Belokurov, V. A., Sanders, J. L., & Koposov, S. E. (2018) · Apollo (University of Cambridge) · doi:10.17863/cam.46982 · Cited by 172
Dark matter local density determination: recent observations and future prospects
de Salas, P. F., & Widmark, A. (2021) · Reports on Progress in Physics · doi:10.1088/1361-6633/ac24e7 · Cited by 208
The mass of the Milky Way from satellite dynamics
Callingham, T. M., Cautun, M., Deason, A. J., Frenk, C. S., Wang, W., Gómez, F. A., Grand, R. J. J., Marinacci, F., & Pakmor, R. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz365 · Cited by 166
“The high MW halo concentration is supported by other studies; for example, the best fit Galaxy model of McMillan (2017) gives C = 16 ± 3.”
MethodInfluentialSteinmetz, M., Guiglion, G., McMillan, P. J., Matijevič, G., Enke, H., Kordopatis, G., Zwitter, T., Valentini, M., Chiappini, C., Casagrande, L., et al. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab9ab8 · Cited by 168
Self-citationA precision search for WIMPs with charged cosmic rays
Reinert, A., & Winkler, M. W. (2018) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2018/01/055 · Cited by 166
“2 kpc and rs for the NFW profile from [119] and determined the scale radii for the other two cases by keeping the amount of dark matter fixed within the radius r = 50 kpc.”
Gravitational probes of dark matter physics
Buckley, M. R., & Peter, A. H. G. (2018) · Physics Reports · doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2018.07.003 · Cited by 189
“Because the efficiency of star formation drops rapidly with decreasing halo mass (Figure 4), the stellar halo of the Milky Way contributes only ∼ 1% of the total stellar mass of the Milky Way [125, 156].”
BackgroundA red giant orbiting a black hole
El-Badry, K., Rix, H., Cendes, Y., Rodriguez, A. C., Conroy, C., Quataert, E., Hawkins, K., Zari, E., Hobson, M. J., Breivik, K., et al. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad799 · Cited by 164
Distances and parallax bias in Gaia DR2
Schönrich, R. A., McMillan, P. J., & Eyer, L. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1451 · Cited by 152
“15) using the method proposed in Schönrich & Aumer (2017).”
MethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationRotation Curve of the Milky Way from Classical Cepheids
Mróz, P., Udalski, A., Skowron, D. M., Skowron, J., Soszyński, I., Pietrukowicz, P., Szymański, M. K., Poleski, R., Kozłowski, S., & Ulaczyk, K. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aaf73f · Cited by 153
Characterization and history of the Helmi streams with Gaia DR2
Koppelman, H. H., Helmi, A., Massari, D., Roelenga, S., & Bastian, U. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834769 · Cited by 159
“This final sample contains 79,318 tentative halo stars, with 12,472 located within 1 kpc from the Sun, which is at 8.2 kpc from the Galactic Centre (Mcmillan 2017).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe pattern speed of the Milky Way bar from transverse velocities
Sanders, J. L., Smith, L. C., & Evans, N. W. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1827 · Cited by 152
“…we consider three priors: N(8.12 kpc, 0.03 kpc) from Gravity Collaboration et al. (2018), N(8.2 kpc, 0.09 kpc) from McMillan (2017) (where it should be noted that McMillan (2017) uses the proper motion of Sgr A* in the estimate of R0 leading to a covariance between v and R0) and N(8.12 kpc, 2 kpc).”
MethodInfluentialDynamical Relics of the Ancient Galactic Halo
Yuan, Z., Myeong, G. C., Beers, T. C., Evans, N. W., Lee, Y. S., Banerjee, P., Gudin, D., Hattori, K., Li, H., Matsuno, T., et al. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab6ef7 · Cited by 152
Almost closing the νMSM sterile neutrino dark matter window with NuSTAR
Perez, K., Ng, K. C. Y., Beacom, J. F., Hersh, C., Horiuchi, S., & Krivonos, R. (2017) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.95.123002 · Cited by 170
The chemical characterization of halo substructure in the Milky Way based on APOGEE
Horta, D., Schiavon, R. P., Mackereth, J. T., Weinberg, D. H., Hasselquist, S., Feuillet, D. K., O'Connell, R. W., Anguiano, B., Prieto, C. A., Beaton, R. L., et al. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3179 · Cited by 145
Searching for Primordial Black Holes in the Radio and X-Ray Sky
Gaggero, D., Bertone, G., Calore, F., Connors, R., Lovell, M. R., Markoff, S., & Storm, E. (2017) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.118.241101 · Cited by 144
3D kinematics and age distribution of the open cluster population
Tarricq, Y., Soubiran, C., Casamiquela, L., Cantat-Gaudin, T., Chemin, L., Anders, F., Antoja, T., Romero-Gómez, M., Figueras, F., Jordi, C., et al. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039388 · Cited by 142
“For the sake of comparison, we also used the axisymmetric potential model from McMillan (2017) to confirm our results.”
BackgroundMethodThe shape of the Galactic halo with Gaia DR2 RR Lyrae. Anatomy of an ancient major merger
Iorio, G., & Belokurov, V. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2806 · Cited by 139
“…by noticing that within 30 kpc, i.e. inside the apocentre of the “Gaia Sausage”, the MW mass is estimated to be ∼ 2.5 × 1011M (see e.g. Gibbons et al. 2014; Williams et al. 2017; Posti & Helmi 2018), of which at least 0.5×1011M can be attributed to the baryonic component (see McMillan 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialApocenter Pile-up: Origin of the Stellar Halo Density Break
Deason, A. J., Belokurov, V., Koposov, S. E., & Lancaster, L. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aad0ee · Cited by 141
Wang, W., Han, J., Cautun, M., Li, Z., & Ishigaki, M. N. (2020) · Science China Physics Mechanics and Astronomy · doi:10.1007/s11433-019-1541-6 · Cited by 160
“0.1 0.1 0.5 0.5 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2.5 2.5 3 3 4 4 5 5 M200[1012M ] Escape V HVS LeoI localObs rot V SJE DF stream timing & LG dyn. satellite phenomen Smith07 Piffl14 Monari18 Deason19 Grand19 Boylan-Kolchin13 McMillan11 Nesti&Salucci13BUR Nesti&Salucci13NFW McMillan17 Cautun19 Battaglia05 Xue08 Gnedin10 Watkins10 Kafle1…”
InfluentialBanik, I., & Zhao, H. (2022) · Symmetry · doi:10.3390/sym14071331 · Cited by 159
Discovery of a dormant 33 solar-mass black hole in pre-release Gaia astrometry
Panuzzo, P., Mazeh, T., Arenou, F., Holl, B., Caffau, E., Jorissen, A., Babusiaux, C., Gavras, P., Sahlmann, J., Bastian, U., et al. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202449763 · Cited by 184
Rotation Curve of the Milky Way and the Dark Matter Density
Sofue, Y. (2020) · Galaxies · doi:10.3390/galaxies8020037 · Cited by 154
Discovery of a nearby 1700 km s−1 star ejected from the Milky Way by Sgr A*
Koposov, S. E., Boubert, D., Li, T. S., Erkal, D., Costa, G. S. D., Zucker, D. B., Ji, A. P., Kuehn, K. W., Lewis, G. F., Mackey, D., et al. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz3081 · Cited by 145
“…integrations, unless specified otherwise, we adopt the gravitational potential from McMillan (2017), the distance from the Sun to GC of 8.178 kpc (Gravity Collaboration et al. 2019), and Solar velocity of (U , V , W ) = (11.1, 245, 7.25) km s−1 (Schönrich, Binney & Dehnen 2010; McMillan 2017).”
InfluentialThe dark matter profile of the Milky Way inferred from its circular velocity curve
Ou, X., Eilers, A., Necib, L., & Frebel, A. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae034 · Cited by 161
Phat ELVIS: The inevitable effect of the Milky Way’s disc on its dark matter subhaloes
Kelley, T., Bullock, J. S., Garrison-Kimmel, S., Boylan-Kolchin, M., Pawlowski, M. S., & Graus, A. S. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1553 · Cited by 136
“These z = 0 properties are taken from McMillan (2017) and Bland-Hawthorn & Gerhard (2016) as summarized in Table 1.”
BackgroundProper Motions, Orbits, and Tidal Influences of Milky Way Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxies
Pace, A., Erkal, D., & Li, T. S. (2022) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac997b · Cited by 79
Dynamical traceback age of theβPictoris moving group
Miret-Roig, N., Galli, P. A. B., Brandner, W., Bouy, H., Barrado, D., Olivares, J., Antoja, T., Romero-Gómez, M., Figueras, F., & Lillo-Box, J. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038765 · Cited by 124
“First, we considered two additional axisymmetric potentials, namely the one of McMillan (2017, hereafter McMillan17) and the one of Bovy (2015, hereafter MWPotential14).”
BackgroundThe hestia project: simulations of the Local Group
Libeskind, N. I., Carlesi, E., Grand, R. J. J., Khalatyan, A., Knebe, A., Pakmor, R., Pilipenko, S., Pawlowski, M. S., Sparre, M., Tempel, E., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2541 · Cited by 129
“…[6] Hattori et al. (2018); [7] Monari et al. (2018); [8] Watkins et al. (2019); [9] Zaritsky & Courtois (2017); [10] Sick et al. (2014); [11] McMillan (2017); [12] Licquia & Newman (2015); [13] Kafle et al. (2014); [14]McConnachie (2012); [15]Karachentsev & Kashibadze (2006); [16] van der…”
Measuring the Mass of the Large Magellanic Cloud with Stellar Streams Observed by S 5
Shipp, N., Erkal, D., Drlica-Wagner, A., Li, T. S., Pace, A. B., Koposov, S. E., Cullinane, L. R., Costa, G. S. D., Ji, A. P., Kuehn, K. W., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac2e93 · Cited by 118
Astrophysical Black Holes: A Compact Pedagogical Review
Bambi, C. (2018) · Annalen der Physik · doi:10.1002/andp.201700430 · Cited by 118
Feuillet, D. K., Feltzing, S., Sahlholdt, C., & Casagrande, L. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1888 · Cited by 118
Discovery of new retrograde substructures: the shards of ω Centauri?
Myeong, G., Evans, N. W., Belokurov, V. A., Sanders, J. L., & Koposov, S. E. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1403 · Cited by 116
The Milky Way Halo in Action Space
Myeong, G. C., Evans, N. W., Belokurov, V., Sanders, J. L., & Koposov, S. E. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aab613 · Cited by 115
“The actions and energy of each star are estimated using the numerical method of Binney (2012) and Sanders & Binney (2016) together with the potential of McMillan (2017).”
MethodSnake in the Clouds: a new nearby dwarf galaxy in the Magellanic bridge*
Koposov, S. E., Walker, M. G., Belokurov, V. A., Casey, A. R., Geringer-Sameth, A., Mackey, D., Costa, G. D., Erkal, D., Jethwa, P., Mateo, M. L., et al. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1772 · Cited by 119
“…r) +A exp (B [Fe/H]), S2(g− r)) where A, B are fitted constants and S1(g−r) and S2(g−r) are cubic splines 5 Computed assuming the VLSR = 232.8 km s −1 from McMillan (2017) and peculiar solar velocity from Schönrich et al. (2010) 6 Obtained using the formula of Walker et al. (2009b) with 20…”
MethodInfluentialNovel Cosmic-Ray Electron and Positron Constraints on MeV Dark Matter Particles
Boudaud, M., Lavalle, J., & Salati, P. (2017) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.119.021103 · Cited by 114
Tests of gravitational symmetries with pulsar binary J1713+0747
Zhu, W., Desvignes, G., Wex, N., Caballero, R. N., Champion, D. J., Demorest, P. B., Ellis, J. A., Janssen, G. H., Krämer, M., Krieger, A., et al. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2905 · Cited by 118
The last breath of the Sagittarius dSph
Vasiliev, E., & Belokurov, V. A. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2114 · Cited by 112
“Instead, we adopt a reasonably realistic MW model, with parameters drawn from an ensemble of Monte Carlo samples from McMillan (2017), but with a less massive spherical halo than in their best-fit model; the circular velocity ranges from 225 to 185 km s−1 between 15 and 60 kpc.”
MethodDetection of the Milky Way reflex motion due to the Large Magellanic Cloud infall
Petersen, M. S., & Peñarrubia, J. (2020) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-020-01254-3 · Cited by 112
Shao, L., Sennett, N., Buonanno, A., Krämer, M., & Wex, N. (2017) · Physical Review X · doi:10.1103/physrevx.7.041025 · Cited by 132
Klioner, S. A., Mignard, F., Lindegren, L., Bastian, U., McMillan, P. J., Hernández, J., Hobbs, D., Ramos-Lerate, M., Biermann, M., Bombrun, A., et al. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039734 · Cited by 120
Self-citationFIREbox: simulating galaxies at high dynamic range in a cosmological volume
Feldmann, R., Quataert, E., Faucher‐Giguère, C., Hopkins, P. F., Çatmabacak, O., Kereš, D., Bassini, L., Bernardini, M., Bullock, J. S., Cenci, E., et al. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1205 · Cited by 148
Koposov, S. E., Erkal, D., Li, T. S., Da Costa, G. S., Cullinane, L. R., Ji, A. P., Kuehn, K., Lewis, G. F., Pace, A. B., Shipp, N., et al. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad551 · Cited by 109
The Cloud Factory I: Generating resolved filamentary molecular clouds from galactic-scale forces
Smith, R. J., Treß, R. G., Sormani, M. C., Glover, S. C. O., Klessen, R. S., Clark, P. C., Izquierdo, A. F., Duarte-Cabral, A., & Zucker, C. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz3328 · Cited by 106
“For the axisymmetric part of our analytic gravitational potential, we use the best fitting potential of McMillan (2017), which was created to be consistent with various observational and theoretical constraints for the Milky Way.”
MethodCameron, A. D., Champion, D. J., Krämer, M., Bailes, M., Barr, E. D., Bassa, C., Bhandari, S., Bhat, N. D. R., Burgay, M., Burke-Spolaor, S., et al. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/sly003 · Cited by 104
“Taking the Galactic potential of McMillan (2017) and our previous systemic velocity estimates, we anticipate that the uncertainties on the individual estimates of the distance to PSR J1757−1854 (see Cordes & Lazio 2002; Yao et al. 2017) will limit this test to within a few tenths of a percent.”
Background3D kinematics and age distribution of the open cluster population
Tarricq, Y., Soubiran, C., Casamiquela, L., Cantat-Gaudin, T., Chemin, L., Anders, F., Antoja, T., Romero-Gómez, M., Figueras, F., Jordi, C., et al. (2021) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039388/pdf · Cited by 103
Horta, D., Schiavon, R. P., Mackereth, J. T., Beers, T. C., Fernández-Trincado, J. G., Frinchaboy, P. M., García-Hernández, D. A., Geisler, D., Hasselquist, S., Jönsson, H., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa478 · Cited by 102
“Such differences can be traced back to the adoption of different Galactic potentials with different total masses—while Massari et al. (2019) adopted a McMillan potential (McMillan 2017), the one adopted in this work was MWPotential2014 (Bovy 2015).”
BackgroundThe chemo-dynamical groups of Galactic globular clusters
Callingham, T. M., Cautun, M., Deason, A. J., Frenk, C. S., Grand, R. J. J., & Marinacci, F. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1145 · Cited by 102
Detection of the LMC-induced sloshing of the Galactic halo
Erkal, D., Deason, A. J., Belokurov, V., Xue, X.-X., Koposov, S. E., Bird, S. A., Liu, C., Simion, I. T., Yang, C., Zhang, L., et al. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1828 · Cited by 101
“We note that this rotational velocity is comparable to the circular velocity of the Milky Way halo beyond 50 kpc (e.g. McMillan 2017; Vasiliev, Belokurov & Erkal 2020) and is thus quite unlikely.”
ResultThe artemis simulations: stellar haloes of Milky Way-mass galaxies
Font, A. S., McCarthy, I. G., Poole-McKenzie, R., Stafford, S. G., Brown, S. T., Schaye, J., Crain, R. A., Theuns, T., & Schaller, M. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2463 · Cited by 111
“This approximately spans the range of values inferred for the Milky Way from a variety of different observations (Guo et al. 2010; Deason et al. 2012; McMillan 2017; Watkins et al. 2019).”
A Low-mass Stellar-debris Stream Associated with a Globular Cluster Pair in the Halo
Yuan, Z., Chang, J., Beers, T. C., & Huang, Y. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aba49f · Cited by 99
The Milky Way Halo in Action Space
Myeong, G., Evans, N. W., Belokurov, V. A., Sanders, J. L., & Koposov, S. E. (2018) · Apollo (University of Cambridge) · doi:10.17863/cam.20490 · Cited by 98
Constraining a Thin Dark Matter Disk with Gaia
Schutz, K., Lin, T., Safdi, B. R., & Wu, C.-L. (2018) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.121.081101 · Cited by 98
Antoja, T., McMillan, P. J., Kordopatis, G., Ramos, P., Helmi, A., Balbinot, E., Cantat-Gaudin, T., Chemin, L., Figueras, F., Jordi, C., et al. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039714 · Cited by 100
Self-citationS 5: The Orbital and Chemical Properties of One Dozen Stellar Streams
Li, T. S., Ji, A. P., Pace, A. B., Erkal, D., Koposov, S. E., Shipp, N., Costa, G. S. D., Cullinane, L. R., Kuehn, K. W., Lewis, G. F., et al. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac46d3 · Cited by 96
Kinematics of Antlia 2 and Crater 2 from the Southern Stellar Stream Spectroscopic Survey (S 5)
Ji, A. P., Koposov, S. E., Li, T. S., Erkal, D., Pace, A. B., Simon, J. D., Belokurov, V. A., Cullinane, L. R., Costa, G. S. D., Kuehn, K. W., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac1869 · Cited by 93
“For the static case, we use the Milky Way potential from McMillan (2017), which consists of four disks, a bulge, and a Navarro–Frenk–White (NFW) dark matter halo.”
MethodInfluentialLimberg, G., Souza, S. O., Pérez-Villegas, Á., Rossi, S., Perottoni, H. D., & Santucci, R. M. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac8159 · Cited by 106
Buder, S., LIND, K., Ness, M., Feuillet, D. K., Horta, D., Monty, S., Buck, T., Nordlander, T., Bland‐Hawthorn, J., Casey, A. R., et al. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab3504 · Cited by 101
A pulsar in a binary with a compact object in the mass gap between neutron stars and black holes
Barr, E. D., Dutta, A., Freire, P. C. C., Cadelano, M., Gautam, T., Krämer, M., Pallanca, C., Ransom, S. M., Ridolfi, A., Stappers, B. W., et al. (2024) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.adg3005 · Cited by 92
Dynamical constraints on a dark matter spike at the Galactic centre from stellar orbits
Lacroix, T. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832652 · Cited by 89
“I do not keep R0 in the generalized NFW profile as a free parameter, but use it to fix the normalization of the halo profile in a way that is consistent with McMillan (2017).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFast Estimation of Orbital Parameters in Milky Way-like Potentials
Mackereth, J. T., & Bovy, J. (2018) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/aadcdd · Cited by 89
In the Galactic Disk, Stellar [Fe/H] and Age Predict Orbits and Precise [X/Fe]
Ness, M., Johnston, K. V., Blancato, K., Rix, H., Beane, A., Bird, J. C., & Hawkins, K. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab3e3c · Cited by 89
Elevated r-process Enrichment in Gaia Sausage and Sequoia*
Aguado, D. S., Belokurov, V. A., Myeong, G. C., Evans, N. W., Kobayashi, C., Sbordone, L., Chanamé, J., Navarrete, C., & Koposov, S. E. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abdbb8 · Cited by 92
Metadata
- Authors
- McMillan, P. J.
- Affiliations
- Lund University (SE)
- Corresponding author
- McMillan, Paul J.
- ORCID
- McMillan, Paul J.
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2016-10-26
- Volume
- 465
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 76-94
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W2485876312
- Cited by
- 1,099
- References
- 128
- Citations by year
- 2026: 104 · 2025: 165 · 2024: 154 · 2023: 126 · 2022: 120 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 30.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Lund University Publications (Lund University) (submittedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- Milky Way mass distribution, gravitational potential, dark matter halos, stellar mass, virial mass, local dark matter density, local standard of rest, halo density profiles, gas discs, orbit integration, axial symmetry
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