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The mass distribution and gravitational potential of the Milky Way
Open accessAbstract
We present mass models of the Milky Way created to fit observational constraints and to be consistent with expectations from theoretical modelling. The method used to create these models is that demonstrated in our previous study, and we improve on those models by adding gas discs to the potential, considering the effects of allowing the inner slope of the halo density profile to vary, and including new observations of maser sources in the Milky Way amongst the new constraints. We provide a best-fitting model, as well as estimates of the properties of the Milky Way. Under the assumptions in our main model, we find that the Sun is R0 = 8.20 ± 0.09 kpc from the Galactic Centre, with the circular speed at the Sun being v0 = 232.8 ± 3.0 km s−1; and that the Galaxy has a total stellar mass of (54.3 ± 5.7) × 109 M⊙, a total virial mass of (1.30 ± 0.30) × 1012 M⊙ and a local dark-matter density of 0.40 ± 0.04 GeV cm−3, where the quoted uncertainties are statistical. These values are sensitive to our choice of priors and constraints. We investigate systematic uncertainties, which in some cases may be larger. For example, if we weaken our prior on R0, we find it to be 7.97 ± 0.15 kpc and that v0 = 226.8 ± 4.2 km s−1. We find that most of these properties, including the local dark-matter density, are remarkably insensitive to the assumed power-law density slope at the centre of the dark-matter halo. We find that it is unlikely that the local standard of rest differs significantly from that found under assumptions of axisymmetry. We have made code to compute the force from our potential, and to integrate orbits within it, publicly available.
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“Such studies argue that the Galactic halo has a very high concentration, typically ∼ 14 or higher”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This stellar mass is in good agreement with estimates for the MW (e.g. Bovy & Rix 2013; McMillan 2017, and Section 5)”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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“and even more flexible formulae, such as the generalised NFW profile (gNFW, which has been used to model the MW halo - McMillan 2017; Karukes et al. 2019b), struggle to describe the radial profile of the contracted halo.”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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“They correspond to an HI mass of 1 . 1 × 10 10 M ⊙ and a molecular gas mass of 10 percent of the HI mass.”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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Cites
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ResultSEVEN-YEAR WILKINSON MICROWAVE ANISOTROPY PROBE(WMAP) OBSERVATIONS: COSMOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION
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“The critical density is ρcrit = 3H2 8πG (6) where we takeH = 70.4 km s−1 Mpc−1 from Komatsu et al.(2011).”
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MethodSimulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars
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MethodEnsemble samplers with affine invariance
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“The corner plots were created with thecorner.py package (Foreman-Mackey 2016).”
MethodLocal kinematics and the local standard of rest
Schönrich, R. A., Binney, J. J., & Dehnen, W. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16253.x · Cited by 1,934 · cited 5×
“…a R0 in an axisymmetric approximation of the true potential (i.e. what we find in this study), and the velocity of a closed orbit,and therefore a theoretical 0 km s−1 dispersion population, in the Solar neighbourhood (which is what is found by local measurementslike that of Schönrich et al. 2010).”
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“Right: cuspy DM density profile with γ = 1 [18].”
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Motion of stars near the galactic center
Boshkayev, K., Konysbayev, T., Kurmanov, Y., Luongo, O., Muccino, M., Quevedo, H., Taukenova, A. S., Urazalina, A., & Zhumakhanova, G. (2021) · International Journal of Mathematics and Physics · doi:10.26577/ijmph.2021.v12.i2.09 · Cited by 1
Inada, T., Abe, H., Abe, S., Abhir, J., Acciari, V. A., Agudo, I., Aniello, T., Ansoldi, S., Antonelli, L. A., Engels, A. A., et al. (2023) · International Cosmic Ray Conference · doi:10.22323/1.444.1427 · Cited by 1
“Figure 3: Obtained limits by this work for the Einasto (red solid line) and cored Zhao (yellow dashed line, [11]) profiles [12], in comparison with previous works by MAGIC (long gray dashed line, [13]), Fermi-LAT (black and gray dash-dotted lines, [14]), H.”
ResultAn Elastic Constitutive Model of Spacetime and Its Applications
Tenev, T. G. (2018) · ProQuest Demo Repository · Cited by 1
Held-out dynamical validation of a cross-survey chemical decomposition of 468,000 Milky Way starsPreprint
Barua, N. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7385521 · Cited by 1
Indirect searches for dark matter with the ANTARES neutrino telescope
Tönnis, C. (2017) · International Cosmic Ray Conference · doi:10.22323/1.301.0913
Dark matter and LHC: Complementarities and limitationsPreprint
Robbins, G., Mahmoudi, F., Arbey, A., & Boudaud, M. (2017) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1710.03658
A model for the mass and distribution of particles in dark matter halos
Runstedtler, A. (2018) · Canadian Journal of Physics · doi:10.1139/cjp-2017-0804
The merger debris of dwarf galaxies in the local stellar halo
Du, C., Li, H., & Newberg, H. J. (2018) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921318005203
Dynamically constrained model of galactic subhalos and impact on dark matter searches
Stref, M., & Lavalle, J. (2020) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1342/1/012079
Gaia results for star clusters and dwarf galaxies in the Milky Way
Massari, D. (2019) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921319006793
Nearby Hills ejecta as a probe of the gravitational potential of the Milky Way
Zhang, Y., Smith, M. C., & McMillan, P. J. (2019) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921319008317
Self-citationMost dwarf spheroidal galaxies surrounding the Milky Way cannot be dark-matter dominated satellitesPreprint
Hammer, F., Yang, Y., Arenou, F., Li, H., Wang, J., Bonifacio, P., Babusiaux, C., & Jiao, Y. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2009.11935
Rotation as a Source of Accelerating Expansion of the UniversePreprint
Szummer, A. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-223614/v1
Сизова, М. Д., Tutukov, A. V., & Vereshchagin, S. V. (2021) · Contributions of the Astronomical Observatory Skalnaté Pleso · doi:10.31577/caosp.2021.51.3.270
“8 km s −1 (McMillan, 2017), (Gravity Collaboration et al.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialInada, T., Kerszberg, D., Hütten, M., Teshima, M., Rico, J., & Ninci, D. (2021) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2156/1/012063
(2022) · SciPost Physics · doi:10.21468/scipost.report.4973
(2022) · SciPost Physics · doi:10.21468/scipost.report.4645
(2022) · SciPost Physics · doi:10.21468/scipost.report.4473
Pathak, D., & Chatterjee, D. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245259
Believe, R. T., & Ross, H. (2022) · Reformed theology in Africa series · doi:10.4102/aosis.2022.bk334.03
Rumours of war and evidence for peace between science and Christianity
Keas, M. N. (2022) · Reformed theology in Africa series · doi:10.4102/aosis.2022.bk334.10
On the Most Reliable Value of the Galactic Aberration Constant
Malkin, Z. (2023) · Research Notes of the AAS · doi:10.3847/2515-5172/ace050
On determination of the Galactic aberration constant
Central Astronomical Observatory at Pulkovo of, R. A. S., & Malkin, Z. M. (2023) · Publications of the Pulkovo Observatory · doi:10.31725/0367-7966-2023-230-3
A New Dark Matter and Dark Energy Theory Based on the Assumption of Mass VectorizationPreprint
Zhou, F. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4692093
Falcon, N. L. (2024) · Open Access Journal of Astronomy · doi:10.23880/oaja-16000109
Constraining the Inner Galactic DM Density Profile with H.E.S.S.
Zuriaga-Puig, J. (2024) · Astronomy · doi:10.3390/astronomy3020008
“We base our models on simulations and dynamical observations of the Milky Way.”
MethodInfluentialMODERN ESTIMATES OF THE MASS OF THE MILKY WAY
Бобылев, В. В., & Байкова, А. Т. (2023) · Astronomicheskii Zhurnal · doi:10.31857/s0004629923080029
SDSS-IV MaNGA: ИСТОЧНИКИ ИОНИЗАЦИИ ДИФФУЗНОЙ ГАЗОВОЙ СРЕДЫ НА БОЛЬШИХ ГАЛАКТИЧЕСКИХ ВЫСОТАХ
Постникова, В. К., & Бизяев, Д. В. (2023) · Письма в астрономический журнал Астрономия и космическая астрофизика · doi:10.31857/s0320010823040046
Early Galaxy Formation and the Hubble Constant Tension
McGaugh, S. (2023) · doi:10.59350/tcypx-cjr90
Testing MOND using the dynamics of nearby stellar streams
Koop, O., & Helmi, A. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348211
Using 26Al to detect ongoing self-enrichment in young massive star clusters
Nowak, K., Krause, M., Siegert, T., Forbrich, J., Yates, R. M., Ramírez-Galeano, L., Charbonnel, C., & Gieles, M. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae2227
Rotation of the Milky Way halo in the solar neighborhood based on GAIA DR3 catalog
Tkachenko, R., Bryndina, A. P., Zhmailova, A. B., & Korchagin, V. I. (2024) · Astronomicheskii Zhurnal · doi:10.31857/s0004629924070055
Metadata
- Authors
- McMillan, P. J.
- Affiliations
- Lund University (SE)
- Corresponding author
- McMillan, Paul J.
- ORCID
- McMillan, Paul J.
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2016-10-26
- Volume
- 465
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 76-94
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W2485876312
- Cited by
- 1,099
- References
- 128
- Citations by year
- 2026: 104 · 2025: 165 · 2024: 154 · 2023: 126 · 2022: 120 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 30.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Lund University Publications (Lund University) (submittedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- Milky Way mass distribution, gravitational potential, dark matter halos, stellar mass, virial mass, local dark matter density, local standard of rest, halo density profiles, gas discs, orbit integration, axial symmetry
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