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The mass distribution and gravitational potential of the Milky Way
Open accessAbstract
We present mass models of the Milky Way created to fit observational constraints and to be consistent with expectations from theoretical modelling. The method used to create these models is that demonstrated in our previous study, and we improve on those models by adding gas discs to the potential, considering the effects of allowing the inner slope of the halo density profile to vary, and including new observations of maser sources in the Milky Way amongst the new constraints. We provide a best-fitting model, as well as estimates of the properties of the Milky Way. Under the assumptions in our main model, we find that the Sun is R0 = 8.20 ± 0.09 kpc from the Galactic Centre, with the circular speed at the Sun being v0 = 232.8 ± 3.0 km s−1; and that the Galaxy has a total stellar mass of (54.3 ± 5.7) × 109 M⊙, a total virial mass of (1.30 ± 0.30) × 1012 M⊙ and a local dark-matter density of 0.40 ± 0.04 GeV cm−3, where the quoted uncertainties are statistical. These values are sensitive to our choice of priors and constraints. We investigate systematic uncertainties, which in some cases may be larger. For example, if we weaken our prior on R0, we find it to be 7.97 ± 0.15 kpc and that v0 = 226.8 ± 4.2 km s−1. We find that most of these properties, including the local dark-matter density, are remarkably insensitive to the assumed power-law density slope at the centre of the dark-matter halo. We find that it is unlikely that the local standard of rest differs significantly from that found under assumptions of axisymmetry. We have made code to compute the force from our potential, and to integrate orbits within it, publicly available.
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“Such studies argue that the Galactic halo has a very high concentration, typically ∼ 14 or higher”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This stellar mass is in good agreement with estimates for the MW (e.g. Bovy & Rix 2013; McMillan 2017, and Section 5)”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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“and even more flexible formulae, such as the generalised NFW profile (gNFW, which has been used to model the MW halo - McMillan 2017; Karukes et al. 2019b), struggle to describe the radial profile of the contracted halo.”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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“They correspond to an HI mass of 1 . 1 × 10 10 M ⊙ and a molecular gas mass of 10 percent of the HI mass.”
From The milky way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2 (2020) · cites this paper as McMillan 2017
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Cites
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“As a test, we have also used the affine invariant MCMC sampler proposed byGoodman & Weare(2010), and packaged asemcee by Foreman-Mackey et al.(2013), to explore the pdf of some of our models, and found essentially identical results.”
ResultSEVEN-YEAR WILKINSON MICROWAVE ANISOTROPY PROBE(WMAP) OBSERVATIONS: COSMOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION
Komatsu, E., Smith, K. M., Dunkley, J., Bennett, C. L., Gold, B., Hinshaw, G., Jarosik, N., Larson, D., Nolta, M. R., Page, L., et al. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/2/18 · Cited by 8,802 · cited 1×
“The critical density is ρcrit = 3H2 8πG (6) where we takeH = 70.4 km s−1 Mpc−1 from Komatsu et al.(2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Structure of Cold Dark Matter Halos
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THE SEVENTH DATA RELEASE OF THE SLOAN DIGITAL SKY SURVEY
Abazajian, K. N., Adelman-McCarthy, J. K., Agüeros, M. A., Allam, S. S., Prieto, C. A., An, D., Anderson, K. S. J., Anderson, S. F., Annis, J., Bahcall, N. A., et al. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/182/2/543 · Cited by 5,341 · cited 1×
“…‘hole’ in the stellar density for the same reasons given in Paper I. TheJurić et al.(2008) analysis of data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS:Abazajian et al. 2009) showed that the approximation to exponential profiles is a sensible one for the Milky Way, and produced estimates based on…”
MethodSimulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars
Springel, V., White, S. D. M., Jenkins, A. R., Frenk, C. S., Yoshida, N., Gao, L., Navarro, J. F., Thacker, R. J., Croton, D., Helly, J. C., et al. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature03597 · Cited by 5,060 · cited 1×
“The relationship betweenM∗ and Mv was determined by ‘abundance matching’ of the galaxy stellar masses found byLi & White (2009) with the halo virial masses found in the Millennium simulations (Springel et al. 2005; Boylan-Kolchin et al. 2009).”
MethodEnsemble samplers with affine invariance
Goodman, J. B., & Weare, J. (2010) · Communications in Applied Mathematics and Computational Science · doi:10.2140/camcos.2010.5.65 · Cited by 3,075
corner.py: Scatterplot matrices in Python
Foreman-Mackey, D. T. (2016) · The Journal of Open Source Software · doi:10.21105/joss.00024 · Cited by 2,183 · cited 1×
“The corner plots were created with thecorner.py package (Foreman-Mackey 2016).”
MethodLocal kinematics and the local standard of rest
Schönrich, R. A., Binney, J. J., & Dehnen, W. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16253.x · Cited by 1,934 · cited 5×
“…a R0 in an axisymmetric approximation of the true potential (i.e. what we find in this study), and the velocity of a closed orbit,and therefore a theoretical 0 km s−1 dispersion population, in the Solar neighbourhood (which is what is found by local measurementslike that of Schönrich et al. 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
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1 of the 128 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
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Items 301–400 of 1,001
Revealing the Ionization Properties of the Magellanic Stream Using Optical Emission
Barger, K., Madsen, G., Fox, A., Wakker, B., Bland-Hawthorn, J., Nidever, D., Haffner, L., Antwi-Danso, J., Hernandez, M., Lehner, N., et al. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa992a · Cited by 24
“…highly elliptical orbit when accounting for (i) an increase in the measured proper motions from Hubble Space Telescope observations of the LMC and SMC by a third (Kallivayalil et al. 2006) and (ii) decreases in the total mass estimates of the Galactic halo (e.g., Kafle et al. 2012; McMillan 2017).”
BackgroundMilky Way Accelerometry via Millisecond Pulsar Timing
Phillips, D. F., Ravi, A., Ebadi, R., & Walsworth, R. L. (2021) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.126.141103 · Cited by 29
Abundance Patterns of α and Neutron-capture Elements in the Helmi Stream
Limberg, G., Santucci, R. M., Rossi, S., Queiroz, A. B. A., Chiappini, C., Souza, S. O., Perottoni, H. D., Pérez-Villegas, Á., & Barbosa, F. O. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac0056 · Cited by 32
“The Galactic parameters are, for consistency, from McMillan (2017) as well.”
MethodVINTERGATAN-GM: The cosmological imprints of early mergers on Milky-Way-mass galaxies
Rey, M. P., Agertz, O., Starkenburg, T., Renaud, F., Joshi, G. D., Pontzen, A., Martin, N. F., Feuillet, D. K., & Read, J. I. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad513 · Cited by 29
Shank, D., Beers, T. C., Placco, V. M., Gudin, D., Catapano, T., Holmbeck, E. M., Ezzeddine, R., Roederer, I. U., Sakari, C. M., Frebel, A., et al. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aca322 · Cited by 29
Prompt cusps and the dark matter annihilation signal
Delos, M. S., & White, S. D. M. (2023) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2023/10/008 · Cited by 40
“[77], which uses parameters consistent with observational constraints [78, 79].”
The structural evolution of galaxies with both thin and thick discs
Aumer, M., & Binney, J. J. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1300 · Cited by 29
“Martig et al. (2016b) have recently presented measurements of radial gradients in τmed at various altitudes |z | in the Snhd.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFinding the Remnants of the Milky Way's Last Neutron Star Mergers
Wu, M. R., Banerjee, P., Metzger, B. D., Martínez-Pinedo, G., Aramaki, T., Burns, E., Hailey, C. J., Barnes, J., & Karagiorgi, G. S. (2019) · Civil War Book Review · Cited by 29
Mapping dark matter in the Milky Way using normalizing flows and Gaia DR3
Lim, S. H., Putney, E., Buckley, M. R., & Shih, D. (2025) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2025/01/021 · Cited by 34
Bracketing the impact of astrophysical uncertainties on local dark matter searches
Ibarra, A., Kavanagh, B. J., & Rappelt, A. (2018) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2018/12/018 · Cited by 27
Using commensurabilities and orbit structure to understand barred galaxy evolution
Petersen, M. S., Weinberg, M. D., & Katz, N. S. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3202 · Cited by 30
“The motivation behind generalizing the NFW profile to include a core lies in the ambiguity of the central density of dark matter halos in observed galaxies, including the MW (McMillan 2017).”
BackgroundTargeting Bright Metal-poor Stars in the Disk and Halo Systems of the Galaxy
Limberg, G., Santucci, R. M., Rossi, S., Shank, D., Placco, V. M., Beers, T. C., Schlaufman, K. C., Casey, A. R., Perottoni, H. D., & Lee, Y. S. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abeefe · Cited by 30
The disturbed outer Milky Way disc
McMillan, P. J., Petersson, J., Tepper-García, T., Bland‐Hawthorn, J., Antoja, T., Chemin, L., Figueras, F., Khanna, S., Kordopatis, G., Ramos, P., et al. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2571 · Cited by 28
Self-citationThe impact of a massive Sagittarius dSph on GD-1-like streams
Dillamore, A. M., Belokurov, V. A., Evans, N. W., & Price-Whelan, A. M. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2311 · Cited by 28
Spiral-like features in the disc revealed by Gaia DR3 radial actions
Palicio, P. A., Recio-Blanco, A., Poggio, E., Antoja, T., McMillan, P. J., & Spitoni, E. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245026 · Cited by 31
Self-citationDonlon, T., & Newberg, H. J. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acb150 · Cited by 28
Limberg, G., Queiroz, A. B. A., Perottoni, H. D., Rossi, S., Amarante, J. A. S., Santucci, R. M., Chiappini, C., Pérez-Villegas, Á., & Lee, Y. S. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acb694 · Cited by 35
A New Member of the Milky Way’s Family Tree: Characterizing the Pontus Merger of Our Galaxy
Malhan, K. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac67da
A search for stellar structures around nine outer halo globular clusters in the Milky Way
Zhang, S., Mackey, D., & Costa, G. S. D. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac751
The Kick Velocity Distribution of Isolated Neutron Stars
Disberg, P., & Mandel, I. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adf286 · Cited by 27
Magnetized High Velocity Clouds in the Galactic Halo: A New Distance Constraint
Grønnow, A., Tepper-García, T., Bland-Hawthorn, J., & McClure-Griffiths, N. M. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa7ed2 · Cited by 27
“…would be to assume some dark matter density profile and then calculate the gravitational acceleration of the cloud’s center of mass from the static potential of the sum of the dark matter and halo gas density profiles (more components could be included for increased accuracy, e.g. McMillan 2017).”
BackgroundUsing velocity dispersion to estimate halo mass: Is the Local Group in tension with ΛCDM?
Elahi, P. J., Power, C., Lagos, C. D. P., Poulton, R. J. J., & Robotham, A. S. G. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty590 · Cited by 27
“…issue, with some arguing for high masses of ∼ 1.5× 1012 M (e.g. Besla et al. 2007; Phelps et al. 2013; Reid & Dame 2016; Zaritsky & Courtois 2017; McMillan 2017), while other data argues for lower masses of ∼ 0.8× 1012 M (e.g. Watkins et al. 2010; Kafle et al. 2014; Huang et al. 2016; Eadie &…”
ResultInfluentialWhat to expect from dynamical modelling of galactic haloes – II. The spherical Jeans equation
Wang, W., Han, J., Cole, S., More, S., Frenk, C. S., & Schaller, M. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty706 · Cited by 27
“A few more recent measurements E-mail: bilinxing.wenting@gmail.com include Huang et al. (2016), Ablimit & Zhao (2017), McMillan (2017), Patel, Besla & Mandel (2017), and Rossi et al. (2017).”
BackgroundOrigin of spin–orbit misalignments: the microblazar V4641 Sgr
Salvesen, G., & Pokawanvit, S. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1094 · Cited by 30
“We try two different realistic Galactic potential models: MWPotential2014 (Bovy et al. 2012; Bovy 2015) and McMillan2017 (McMillan 2017).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialStar Formation Timescales of the Halo Populations from Asteroseismology and Chemical Abundances*
Matsuno, T., Aoki, W., Casagrande, L., Ishigaki, M. N., Shi, J., Takata, M., Xiang, M., Yong, D., Li, H., Suda, T., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abeab2 · Cited by 31
Birth of a Be star: an APOGEE search for Be stars forming through binary mass transfer
El-Badry, K., Conroy, C., Quataert, E., Rix, H., Labadie-Bartz, J. M., Jayasinghe, T., Thompson, T. A., Cargile, P. A., Stassun, K. G., & Ilyin, I. V. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2422 · Cited by 27
Santistevan, I. B., Wetzel, A. R., Tollerud, E. J., Sanderson, R. E., & Samuel, J. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3100 · Cited by 34
Kenyon, S. J., Bromley, B. C., Brown, W. R., & Geller, M. J. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aada04 · Cited by 27
The Milky Way’s rotation curve with superfluid dark matter
Hossenfelder, S., & Mistele, T. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2594 · Cited by 30
Age determination of galaxy merger remnant stars using asteroseismology
Borre, C. C., Børsen-Koch, V. A., Helmi, A., Koppelman, H. H., Nielsen, M. B., Mosumgaard, J. R., Stello, D., Stokholm, A., Winther, M. L., Davies, G. R., et al. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1498 · Cited by 26
Exotic compact objects: The dark white dwarf
Ryan, M., & Radice, D. (2022) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.105.115034 · Cited by 26
“01) fraction of the ordinary matter [35, 36], this constraint seems reasonable for models that predict a dark astrophysical formation like [21].”
BackgroundDynamically Tagged Groups of Metal-poor Stars. II. The Radial Velocity Experiment Data Release 6
Shank, D., Komater, D., Beers, T. C., Placco, V. M., & Huang, Y. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ac680c · Cited by 26
The Unmixed Debris of Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus in the Form of a Pair of Halo Stellar Overdensities
Perottoni, H. D., Limberg, G., Amarante, J. A. S., Rossi, S., Queiroz, A. B. A., Santucci, R. M., Pérez-Villegas, Á., & Chiappini, C. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac88d6 · Cited by 29
Mapping Milky Way disk perturbations in stellar number density and vertical velocity using Gaia DR3
Widmark, A., Widrow, L. M., & Naik, A. P. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244453 · Cited by 26
Zhang, R., Jin, Z., Li, M., Gillman, M., Chen, S., Liu, Q., Wei, R., & Shi, J. (2023) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104533 · Cited by 28
Hamer, J. H., & Schlaufman, K. C. (2024) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ad110e · Cited by 28
Sormani, M. C., Sobacchi, E., Pezzulli, G., Binney, J. J., & Klessen, R. S. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2500 · Cited by 26
“These values are appropriate for the Milky Way and are similar to the best fit values of McMillan (2017).”
MethodUncertainties in direct dark matter detection in light of Gaia's escape velocity measurements
Wu, Y., Katherine Freese, B., Kelso, C., Stengel, P., & Valluri, M. (2019) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2019/10/034 · Cited by 26
The life cycle of the Central Molecular Zone – II. Distribution of atomic and molecular gas tracers
Armillotta, L., Krumholz, M. R., & Teodoro, E. M. D. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa469 · Cited by 28
“We use the best-fit Milky Way potential by McMillan (2017) as modified by Ridley et al. (2017), which includes contributions from the dark matter halo, the stellar disc, the bulge and the Galactic bar rotating with a constant patter speed Ωp = 40 km s −1 kpc−1 (e.g. Wegg et al. 2015).”
MethodA Lower Mass Estimate for PSR J0348+0432 Based on CHIME/Pulsar Precision Timing
Saffer, A., Fonseca, E., Ransom, S. M., Stairs, I. H., Lynch, R. S., Good, D. C., Masui, K. W., McKee, J. W., Meyers, B. W., Patil, S. S., et al. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adc25e · Cited by 25
Testing the Universality of Free Fall towards Dark Matter with Radio Pulsars.
Shao, L.-J., Wex, N., & Kramer, M. (2018) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.120.241104 · Cited by 14
Weighing the Galactic disk in sub-regions of the solar neighbourhood using Gaia DR2
Widmark, A., de Salas, P. F., & Monari, G. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039852 · Cited by 25
“…great importance for constraining properties of the Milky Way (Dehnen & Binney 1998; Klypin et al. 2002; Widrow et al. 2008; Weber & de Boer 2010; McMillan 2011, 2017; Kafle et al. 2014; Cole & Binney 2017; Nitschai et al. 2020; Cautun et al. 2020; Li et al. 2020), and this has implications for…”
BackgroundWeighing the Galactic disk using phase-space spirals
Widmark, A., Laporte, C. F. P., & de Salas, P. F. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140650 · Cited by 24
“…the Milky Way is important for constraining its composition, history, and dynamical properties (Dehnen & Binney 1998; Klypin et al. 2002; Widrow et al. 2008; Weber & de Boer 2010; McMillan 2011, 2017; Kafle et al. 2014; Cole & Binney 2017; Nitschai et al. 2020; Cautun et al. 2020; Li et al. 2020).”
BackgroundA first estimate of the Milky Way dark matter halo spin
Obreja, A., Buck, T., & Macciò, A. V. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140983 · Cited by 27
The Cetus-Palca stream: A disrupted small dwarf galaxy
Thomas, G. F., & Battaglia, G. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142347 · Cited by 25
Cosmological simulations of the same spiral galaxy: the impact of baryonic physics
Núñez-Castiñeyra, A., Nezri, E., Devriendt, J., & Teyssier, R. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3233 · Cited by 25
Most nearby young star clusters formed in three massive complexes
Swiggum, C., Alves, J., Benjamin, R. A., Ratzenböck, S., Miret-Roig, N., Großschedl, J. E., Meingast, S., Goodman, A. A., Konietzka, R., Zucker, C., et al. (2024) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07496-9 · Cited by 24
“In the first model 46 , the Sun has a circular velocity of 233 km s −1 , with R ☉ = 8.21 kpc.”
InfluentialTajiri, T., Kawahara, H., Aizawa, M., Fujii, M. S., Hattori, K., Kasagi, Y., Kotani, T., Masuda, K., Momose, M., Muto, T., et al. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/abbc17 · Cited by 24
TITANS metal-poor reference stars
Giribaldi, R. E., da Silva, A. R., Smiljanić, R., & Espinoza, D. C. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140751 · Cited by 24
“The orbits of the stars were integrated for a total of 15 Gyr using the program galpy (Bovy 2015) with the gravitational potential of McMillan (2017).”
MethodWeighing the Galactic disk using phase-space spirals
Widmark, A., Laporte, C. F. P., & Monari, G. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142819 · Cited by 24
Modeling the kinematics of globular cluster systems
Chen, Y., & Gnedin, O. Y. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1651 · Cited by 24
A 62-minute orbital period black widow binary in a wide hierarchical triple
Burdge, K. B., Marsh, T. R., Fuller, J., Bellm, E. C., Caiazzo, I., Chakrabarty, D., Coughlin, M. W., De, K., Dhillon, V. S., Graham, M. J., et al. (2022) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04551-1 · Cited by 24
Palau, C. G., & Miralda‐Escudé, J. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1930 · Cited by 27
The energy distribution of the first supernovae
Koutsouridou, I., Salvadori, S., Skúladóttir, Á., Rossi, M., Vanni, I., & Pagnini, G. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2304 · Cited by 34
Garcia, J. C., Beers, T. C., Huang, Y., Li, X., Liu, G., Zhang, H., Hong, J., Lee, Y. S., Shank, D., Gudin, D., et al. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3674 · Cited by 25
Abundances of iron-peak elements in accreted and in situ born Galactic halo stars
Nissen, P. E., Amarsi, A. M., Skúladóttir, Á., & Schuster, W. J. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348392 · Cited by 24
Zhang, R., Matsuno, T., Li, H., Aoki, W., Xue, X.-X., Suda, T., Zhao, G., Chen, Y., Ishigaki, M. N., Shi, J., et al. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad31a6 · Cited by 23
Lacroix, T., Núñez-Castiñeyra, A., Stref, M., Lavalle, J., & Nezri, E. (2020) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2020/10/031 · Cited by 23
“[109], including a dark matter profile and several components for baryons, were fitted on three different highly resolved zoom-in cosmological simulations, described in Ref.”
MethodDynamical age of the Tucana-Horologium young stellar association
Galli, P. A. B., Miret-Roig, N., Bouy, H., Olivares, J., & Barrado, D. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad520 · Cited by 23
The High-velocity Stars in the Local Stellar Halo from Gaia and LAMOST
Du, C., Li, H., Liu, S., Donlon, T., & Newberg, H. J. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aad088 · Cited by 25
The GALAH survey: tracing the Milky Way’s formation and evolution through RR Lyrae stars
D’Orazi, V., Storm, N., Casey, A. R., Braga, V. F., Zocchi, A., Bono, G., Fabrizio, M., Sneden, C. A., Massari, D., Giribaldi, R. E., et al. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae1149 · Cited by 22
Gliese 12 b: A Temperate Earth-sized Planet at 12 pc Ideal for Atmospheric Transmission Spectroscopy
Kuzuhara, M., Fukui, A., Livingston, J. H., Caballero, J. A., de Leon, J. P., Hirano, T., Kasagi, Y., Murgas, F., Narita, N., Omiya, M., et al. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad3642 · Cited by 22
Self-interacting Dark Matter Interpretation of Crater II
Zhang, X., Yu, H.-B., Yang, D., & An, H. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad50cd · Cited by 22
The GD-1 Stellar Stream Perturber as a Core-collapsed Self-interacting Dark Matter Halo
Zhang, X., Yu, H.-B., Yang, D., & Nadler, E. O. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ada02b · Cited by 22
Observational Constraints of Radial Migration in the Galactic Disk Driven by the Slowing Bar
Zhang, H., Belokurov, V. A., Evans, N. W., Sanders, J. L., Lu, Y., Cao, C., Myeong, G., Dillamore, A. M., Kane, S. G., & Li, Z. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adc261 · Cited by 29
Age dissection of the vertical breathing motions in Gaia DR2: evidence for spiral driving
Ghosh, S., Debattista, V. P., & Khachaturyants, T. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac137 · Cited by 23
Constraints on the Galactic Centre environment from Gaia hyper-velocity stars
Evans, F. A., Marchetti, T., & Rossi, E. M. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac495 · Cited by 26
Constraining scalarization in scalar-Gauss-Bonnet gravity through binary pulsars
Danchev, V. I., Doneva, D. D., & Yazadjiev, S. S. (2022) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.106.124001 · Cited by 22
“Values are obtained from [6, 47–50] where the observed time derivatives are corrected using the Galactic potential of [51].”
MethodChronology of the chemical enrichment of the old Galactic stellar populations
Giribaldi, R. E., & Smiljanić, R. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245404 · Cited by 22
Dark matter spikes around Sgr A* in γ-rays
Balaji, S., Sachdeva, D., Sala, F., & Silk, J. I. (2023) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2023/08/063 · Cited by 22
“383GeV/cm3 is the local DM density [34].”
MethodTaking the Milky Way for a spin: disc formation in the artemis simulations
Dillamore, A. M., Belokurov, V. A., Kravtsov, A. V., & Font, A. S. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3369 · Cited by 22
Metal-poor stars with disc-like orbits
Bellazzini, M., Massari, D., Ceccarelli, E., Mucciarelli, A., Bragaglia, A., Riello, M., Angeli, F. D., & Montegriffo, P. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348106 · Cited by 22
Roederer, I. U., Beers, T. C., Hattori, K., Placco, V. M., Hansen, T. T., Ezzeddine, R., Frebel, A., Holmbeck, E. M., & Sakari, C. M. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad57bf · Cited by 22
The orbital phase space of contracted dark matter haloes
Callingham, T. M., Cautun, M., Deason, A. J., Frenk, C. S., Grand, R. J. J., Marinacci, F., & Pakmor, R. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1089 · Cited by 23
“However, to model the inner regions of our galaxy it is essential to include the mass distributions of its baryonic components such as the thin and thick disks, the bulge and the stellar halo (e.g. McMillan 2011, 2017).”
BackgroundProbing black holes in a dark matter spike of M87 using quasinormal modes
Liu, D., Yang, Y., & Long, Z. (2024) · The European Physical Journal C · doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-024-13096-8 · Cited by 21
“[23,37,38] and mainly focus on the case of γ ∈ [ 1 / 2 , 3 / 2 ] and then γ sp ∈ [ 16 / 7 , 12 / 5 ] .”
Improved Particle Spray Algorithm for Modeling Globular Cluster Streams
Chen, Y., Valluri, M., Gnedin, O. Y., & Ash, N. F. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ad9904 · Cited by 21
Cirelli, M., Струмиа, А., & Zupan, J. (2026) · doi:10.21468/scipostphysrev.1 · Cited by 60
The GALAH survey: accreted stars also inhabit the Spite plateau
Simpson, J. D., Martell, S. L., Buder, S., Bland‐Hawthorn, J., Casey, A. R., Silva, G. M. D., D’Orazi, V., Freeman, K. C., Hayden, M., Kos, J., et al. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab2012 · Cited by 24
“Briefly, this used galpy (Bovy 2015) with values from GALAH DR3 and Gaia eDR3, McMillan2017 potential (McMillan 2017) and the values 𝑅GC = 8.21 kpc and 𝑣circular = 233.1 km s−1 (The GRAVITY Collaboration et al. 2019).”
MethodInfluentialThe Far-away Blues: Exploring the Furthest Extents of the Boötes I Ultra-faint Dwarf Galaxy
Filion, C., & Wyse, R. F. Ġ. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac2df1 · Cited by 21
Hypervelocity Stars Track Back to the Galactic Center in Gaia DR3
Liao, J., Du, C., Li, H., Ma, J., & Shi, J. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acb7d9 · Cited by 21
Feltzing, S., & Feuillet, D. K. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ace185 · Cited by 24
Candidate Members of the VMP/EMP Disk System of the Galaxy from the SkyMapper and SAGES Surveys
Hong, J., Beers, T. C., Lee, Y. S., Huang, Y., Hirai, Y., Garcia, J. C., Shank, D., Xu, S., Yuan, H., Mardini, M. K., et al. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ad4a6f · Cited by 24
a-sloth reveals the nature of the first stars
Hartwig, T., Lipatova, V., Glover, S. C. O., & Klessen, R. S. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae2318 · Cited by 21
Interactions between ultra-high-energy particles and protogalactic environments
Owen, E. R., Jacobsen, I. B., Wu, K., & Surajbali, P. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2279 · Cited by 21
The Substructures in the Local Stellar Halo from Gaia and LAMOST
Li, H., Du, C., Liu, S., Donlon, T., & Newberg, H. J. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab06f4 · Cited by 21
Dark matter capture by the Sun: revisiting velocity distribution uncertainties
Núñez-Castiñeyra, A., Nezri, E., & Bertin, V. (2019) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2019/12/043 · Cited by 21
“The panel d) shows the boost of the Eddington method predictions with respect to the Maxwellian and truncated Maxwellian distributions, all using parameters of the Milky Way mass model from [84].”
MethodInfluentialObservational Evidence for a Thick Disk of Dark Molecular Gas in the Outer Galaxy
Busch, M., Engelke, P. D., Allen, R. J., & Hogg, D. E. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abf832 · Cited by 21
“Using an estimate of stellar mass of∼6× 1010 Me (Licquia & Newman 2015; McMillan 2017) and an estimate of the known mass of the interstellar medium of ∼1×1010 Me (Kalberla & Kerp 2009), we roughly estimate that this newly discovered diffuse molecular disk could increase the baryonic mass estimate…”
BackgroundEstimating the Milky Way's Mass via Hierarchical Bayes: A Blind Test on MUGS2 Simulated Galaxies
Eadie, G., Keller, B., & Harris, W. E. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aadb95 · Cited by 20
Burgasser, A. J., Schneider, A. C., Meisner, A., Caselden, D., Hsu, C.-C., Gerasimov, R., Aganze, C., Softich, E., Karpoor, P. R., Theissen, C. A., et al. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adb39f · Cited by 20
The structure of the Milky Way based on unWISE 3.4 μm integrated photometry
Mosenkov, A. V., Савченко, С. С., Smirnov, A. A., & Camps, P. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab2445 · Cited by 20
“Our results contrast with what is commonly believed that the mass of the thick disc is only 10-20% of the mass of the thin disc (McMillan 2011; Smith et al. 2015; Barros et al. 2016; McMillan 2017).”
ResultYoung giants of intermediate mass
Lombardo, L., François, P., Bonifacio, P., Caffau, E., Pinto, A. M. M., Charbonnel, C., Meynet, G., Monaco, L., Cescutti, G., & Mucciarelli, A. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141408 · Cited by 20
Typhon: A Polar Stream from the Outer Halo Raining through the Solar Neighborhood
Tenachi, W., Oria, P.-A., Ibata, R., Famaey, B., Yuan, Z., Arentsen, A., Martin, N. F., & Viswanathan, A. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac874f · Cited by 20
Classifying Globular Clusters and Applying them to Estimate the mass of the Milky Way
Sun, G.-C., Wang, Y., Liu, C., Long, R. J., Chen, X., & Gao, Q. (2022) · Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1088/1674-4527/ac9e91 · Cited by 20
Astrometric Microlensing by Primordial Black Holes with the Roman Space Telescope
Fardeen, J., McGill, P., Perkins, S., Dawson, W. A., Abrams, N. S., Lu, J. R., Ho, M.-F., & Bird, S. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad3243 · Cited by 31
Cosmic flow around local massive galaxies
Kashibadze, O. G., & Karachentsev, I. D. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731645 · Cited by 20
New type II Cepheids from VVV data towards the Galactic center
Braga, V. F., Ramos, R. C., Minniti, D., Lopes, C. E. F., Catelan, M., Minniti, J. H., Nikzat, F., & Zoccali, M. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935103 · Cited by 20
“To investigate the central regions of the Galaxy is a top priority for studies of Galaxy evolution, since the Bulge contains∼40% of the stellar mass of the Galaxy (Valenti et al. 2016; McMillan 2017).”
BackgroundThe AMBRE Project: Solar neighbourhood chemodynamical constraints on Galactic disc evolution
Santos-Peral, P., Recio-Blanco, A., Kordopatis, G., Fernández-Alvar, E., & de Laverny, P. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202040144 · Cited by 20
Tracing stars in Milky Way satellites with a-sloth
Chen, L., Magg, M., Hartwig, T., Glover, S. C. O., Ji, A. P., & Klessen, R. S. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac933 · Cited by 20
Simple Distance Estimates for Gaia DR2 Stars with Radial Velocities
McMillan, P. J. (2018) · Research Notes of the AAS · doi:10.3847/2515-5172/aaca93 · Cited by 24
Self-citationTracing the Milky Way’s Vestigial Nuclear Jet
Cecil, G. N., Wagner, A. Y., Bland‐Hawthorn, J., Bicknell, G. V., & Mukherjee, D. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac224f · Cited by 18
Metadata
- Authors
- McMillan, P. J.
- Affiliations
- Lund University (SE)
- Corresponding author
- McMillan, Paul J.
- ORCID
- McMillan, Paul J.
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2016-10-26
- Volume
- 465
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 76-94
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W2485876312
- Cited by
- 1,099
- References
- 128
- Citations by year
- 2026: 104 · 2025: 165 · 2024: 154 · 2023: 126 · 2022: 120 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 30.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Lund University Publications (Lund University) (submittedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- Milky Way mass distribution, gravitational potential, dark matter halos, stellar mass, virial mass, local dark matter density, local standard of rest, halo density profiles, gas discs, orbit integration, axial symmetry
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