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QUANTITATIVE METHODS IN THE REVIEW OF EPIDEMIOLOGIC LITERATURE1
Abstract
SANDER GREENLAND; QUANTITATIVE METHODS IN THE REVIEW OF EPIDEMIOLOGIC LITERATURE 1, Epidemiologic Reviews, Volume 9, Issue 1, 1 January 1987, Pages 1–30, https:
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“Our meta-analysis supersedes previous stud- ies12 14 because it includes case-control studies (omitted in the study of Myers and Basinski12); pools data from a more compre- hensive set of studies (15 cohort studies compared with 11 analysed in Myers and Basinski,12 and five by Greenland14); and stratifies the analyses by disease end point, smoking, and sex.”
From Does coffee drinking increase the risk of coronary heart disease? Results from a meta‐analysis (1994) · cites this paper as [14]
In the citing paper
“One limitation of the prospective study design is the lag time between exposure assessment and outcome, which might potentially obscure acute effects of coffee intake on risk of heart disease.'4”
From Does coffee drinking increase the risk of coronary heart disease? Results from a meta‐analysis (1994) · cites this paper as [14]
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“Finally, there choice whether to favour a fixed- or random-effects analysis remains open to debate, with strong and apparently compelling proponents on both sides [32, 88–91].”
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“Greenland [1, 2] described a general variance-based method for meta analysis that requires only information on each study e ect measure and its 95 per cent con dence interval.”
Dwyer, T., Couper, D., & Walter, S. D. (2001) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/s0895-4356(00)00313-9 · Cited by 48
Savitz, D. A., & Poole, C. (2001) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/1521-186x(2001)22:5+ · Cited by 7
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“HRs are considered a common measure of the association between comorbidities and HF prognostic outcomes with both ORs and RRs considered equivalent to HRs, given that the ORs and RRs provide similar estimates of risk when the outcome is rare [12].”
BackgroundErren, T. C., Glende, C. B., Morfeld, P., & Piekarski, C. (2008) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-008-0387-0 · Cited by 51
“First, we calculated Wxed-eVect summaries (FES) and corresponding 95% CI for various combinations of studies, weighting individual results by their precision (Greenland 1987).”
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Shao, C., Bai, L.-P., Qi, Z., Hui, G., & Wang, Z. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0090167 · Cited by 53
“The summary RRs for case-control, cohort studies, and all studies were 1.33 (95%=1.07–1.66, PHeterogeneity = 0.590, I 2 = 0.0%), 1.55 (95%=1.28–1.86, PHeterogeneity = 0.450, I 2 = 0.0%), and 1.45 (95% CI= 1.26–1.67, PHeterogeneity = 0.550, I 2 = 0.0%), respectively.”
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“indicate high heterogeneity [12].”
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“Due to the low incidence of ovarian cancer, the OR in the casecontrol study was similar to the RR.25 A random-effects model was applied to pool the risk estimates.”
MethodLiu, Z., Zhang, T., Yu, J., Ying-li, L., Qi, S.-F., Zhao, J., Liu, D., & Tian, Q. (2016) · Neuroepidemiology · doi:10.1159/000450854 · Cited by 55
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“For the case–control studies between January 1996 and December 2001, we used the meta-analytic method that Petitti has adapted from others (Greenland, 1987; Greenland and Longnecker, 1992; Petitti, 2000).”
MethodXu, Y., Yang, X., Chen, D., Xu, Y., Lan, L., Zhao, S., Liu, Q., Snijders, A. M., & Xia, Y. (2022) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137459 · Cited by 55
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“49 We applied non-parametric bootstrapping with 500 full re-samples of individuals from the cohort to calculate the 95% confidence intervals.”
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“We calculated the pooled summary of these RRs using fixed effects models as described by Greenland (1987).”
MethodCui, X.-J., He, Q., Zhang, J., Fan, H., Wen, Z.-F., & Qin, Y. (2013) · Pancreas · doi:10.1097/mpa.0b013e3182a8d41f · Cited by 50
“Because the absolute risk for pancreatic cancer is low and the OR mathematically approximates the RR in case-control studies, we therefore reported all the results as the OR for simplicity.(21) Taking the consideration of possible heterogeneity across the original studies caused by different study designs and differen…”
MethodLi, J., Zou, L., Chen, W., Zhu, B., Shen, N., Ke, J., Lou, J., Song, R., Zhong, R., & Miao, X. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0093437 · Cited by 51
“Statistical analysis The RR and HR are assumed to approximate the OR because of the low incidence of breast cancer [27], thus we combined the RR and HR with OR in current meta-analysis and reported the summary effect size as RR for simplicity.”
MethodShi, Z.-R., Cao, C.-X., Tan, G.-Z., & Wang, L. (2014) · Lupus · doi:10.1177/0961203314560003 · Cited by 49
Li, Y., Cai, S., Ling, Y., Mi, S., Fan, C., Zhong, Y., & Shen, Q. (2019) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2019.03.026 · Cited by 50
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A pooled analysis of alcohol intake and colorectal cancer.
Wang, Y., Duan, H., Yang, H. W., & Lin, J. (2015) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 49
A Meta-Analysis of Painting Exposure and Cancer Mortality
Chen, R., & Seaton, A. (1998) · Cancer Detection and Prevention · doi:10.1046/j.1525-1500.1998.00a47.x · Cited by 50
Tanaka, S., Petersen, M. R., & Cameron, L. L. (2001) · American Journal of Industrial Medicine · doi:10.1002/1097-0274(200103)39:3 · Cited by 112
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“1 PRISMA flow diagram [12] J Gastroenterol (2021) 56:409–420 411”
BackgroundA systematic review of quantitative bias analysis applied to epidemiological research
Petersen, J. M., Ranker, L. R., Barnard‐Mayers, R., MacLehose, R. F., & Fox, M. P. (2021) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyab061 · Cited by 53
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Zhang, Y., Wang, R., Miao, L., et al. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124045 · Cited by 49
“However, random-effects model was allowed to be used into compute the heterogeneity [17].”
MethodFesta, V., Andriulli, A., Valvano, M. R., et al. (2013) · PubMed · doi:10.6092/1590-8577/1724 · Cited by 49
Gao, J., Yang, X., & Zhang, Y. (2014) · Japanese Journal of Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1093/jjco/hyu175 · Cited by 49
“Though Greenland (37) once believed OS was similar to hazard ratio in the COX model, it would be much better to calculate them both.”
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Lafranconi, A., Micek, A., Galvano, F., Rossetti, S., Pup, L. D., Berretta, M., & Facchini, G. (2017) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu9111223 · Cited by 49
“In this meta-analysis, HRs were deemed equivalent to relative risks (RRs) [22].”
MethodLiu, W., Zhou, Z., Dong, D., Sun, L., & Zhang, G. (2018) · Disease Markers · doi:10.1155/2018/7925219 · Cited by 50
“As the prevalence of tumor is very low, we considered that ORs equaled RRs or HRs, providing similar risk estimates [88].”
ResultZhou, Q., Li, H., Zhou, J., et al. (2015) · Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics · doi:10.1007/s00404-015-3811-1 · Cited by 49
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“Because the incidence of CRA is low, the ORs in retrospective studies approximate the RRs [25, 26].”
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“Pooled effects were assessed by random-effect meta-analyses in which RRs and HRs were treated as equivalent measure of risk [22] and the term of the relative risk refer to both of them.”
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“…of risk factors with each other was conducted based on OR, where HRs (Hazard Ratio) and RRs (Risk Ratio) were both directly considered as OR (Greenland, 1987), for kidney stones outcome by performing the simulation with 16,000 iterations and with the burned out of 10,000 iterations in the…”
Depression increased risk of coronary heart disease: A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies
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“The original HRs obtained in the text were considered as equivalent estimations for RRs.(26) For a study only reported OR, particular formulae were used to convert OR to RR.(27) We calculated the pooled RR with the corresponding 95% CI for the association between depression and the risk of CHD.”
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“…Nested group meta-analysis Rosenberg (2013) Cumulative meta-analysis Chalmers (1991) Linear meta-regression analysis Hedges and Olkin (1985); Greenland (1987) Complex/GLM meta-analysis Hedges and Olkin (1985); Rosenberg et al. (2000) Phylogenetic GLM meta-analysis Lajeunesse et al. (2013)…”
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“Because the outcome under study was rare in all populations and subgroups under review, ORs were considered approximations of RR.(25) The Higgins I(2) statistic was used to assess heterogeneity across studies, where an I(2) estimate greater than 50% was considered substantial heterogeneity.”
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Huncharek, M. S., Kupelnick, B., & Klassen, H. J. (2002) · Journal of Neuro-Oncology · doi:10.1023/a:1015734921470 · Cited by 47
“Using the general variance-based meta-analysis method employing confidence intervals proposed by Greenland, Q is calculated as Q = sum[weight × (ln ORs − ln ORi )2] where the odds ratios ORs and ORi are estimated as described above.”
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Gaertner, R. R. W., & Theriault, G. P. (2002) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oem.59.10.655 · Cited by 48
“67 68 Each study effect estimate was weighted according to the inverse variance (weight = 1/SE 2 ) calculated from the 95% CI using SE = ln(RR/CI low )/1.96.”
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“previously described by Greenland [7].”
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Collins, J. J., & Acquavella, J. (1998) · PubMed · Cited by 47
Coffee and caffeine intake and risk of endometriosis: a meta-analysis
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“Because the absolute risk of pancreatic cancer is low, we generally ignored the distinctions amongst the various measures of relative risk (ORs in case-control studies and RRs in cohort studies); therefore, we reported all of the results as ORs for simplicity 44 .”
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“Metaregressions and subgroup analyses were carried out to quantify between-study heterogeneity (25).”
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“Previous reviews used vote counting procedures to synthesize evidence,(20,21) which has no statistical rationale,(72) poor performance validity,(73) and can result in misleading conclusions, particularly when statistical power is low.(72,74) We used more robust methods by conducting random-effects meta-analysis and ex…”
MethodGender differences in work-related risk factors associated with low back symptoms
Widanarko, B., Legg, S. J., Stevenson, M. A., Devereux, J. J., Eng, A., Mannetje, A. ’., Cheng, S., & Pearce, N. E. (2012) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2011.642410 · Cited by 46
“Furthermore, not taking into account potential confounders may lead to invalid estimation of the effect(s) of particular risk factors (Greenland 1987).”
BackgroundWang, Y., Lammi‐Keefe, C. J., Hou, L., & Hu, G. (2013) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2013.07.009 · Cited by 46
“1 mmol/L (39 mg/dl) change in LDL cholesterol [23].”
BackgroundObi, N., Chang-Claude, J. C., Berger, J., Braendle, W., Slanger, T. E., Schmidt, M. E., Steindorf, K., Ahrens, W., & Flesch‐Janys, D. (2009) · Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention · doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-0298 · Cited by 46
“Pair wise differences between effect estimates of HEP use among tumor characteristics were tested for heterogeneity, taking the covariance of the effect estimates into account (27).”
MethodTrédaniel, J., Boffetta, P., Little, J., Saracci, R., & Hirsch, A. (1994) · Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.1994.tb00455.x · Cited by 44
Systematic review/Meta-analysis Coffee consumption and risk of fractures: a meta-analysis
Liu, H., Yao, K., Zhang, W., Zhou, J. F., Wu, T., & He, C. (2012) · Archives of Medical Science · doi:10.5114/aoms.2012.31612 · Cited by 45
“Highlights of our studies are that we performed sensitivity analysis wherever statistical heterogeneity existed and we adopted the method proposed by Greenland [40, 41] to estimate study-specific RR per cup of coffee whenever possible to get more accurate results.”
MethodPurc‐Stephenson, R. J., & Gorey, K. M. (2008) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.01.001 · Cited by 45
“The odds ratio (OR), which is an estimate of the relative odds of an ethnic minority woman having a mammography versus white non-Hispanic woman having a mammography, was selected as this study’s central meta-analytic statistic (Cooper, 1998; Greenland, 1987).”
MethodYu, F., Jin, Z., Jiang, H., Xiang, C., Tang, J., Li, T., & He, J. (2014) · BMC Cancer · doi:10.1186/1471-2407-14-197 · Cited by 45
“Studies were included if they met the following criteria: (1) a prospective study assessing the association between tea consumption and at least one of the five selected cancers (breast, stomach, colorectal, liver and prostate cancer); (2) a study considering at least three levels of tea consumption and providing a sa…”
BackgroundInfluentialLiu, P., Yang, F., Wang, Y., & Yuan, Z. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15102070 · Cited by 47
Vamvakas, E. C. (2004) · Vox Sanguinis · doi:10.1111/j.0042-9007.2004.00394.x · Cited by 45
Melanoma and Ionizing Radiation: Is There a Causal Relationship?
Fink, C. A., & Bates, M. (2005) · Radiation Research · doi:10.1667/rr3447.1 · Cited by 45
“The fixed-effects model was used to calculate pooled relative risk estimates using the inverse of the squared standard error as the weighting factor for each study (10).”
MethodA Meta-analysis of Mortality among Workers Exposed to Organic Solvents
Chen, R., & Seaton, A. (1996) · Occupational Medicine · doi:10.1093/occmed/46.5.337 · Cited by 45
Meta-analysis of Home-Care Effects on Mortality and Nursing-Home Placement
Hedrick, S. C., Koepsell, T. D., & Inui, T. S. (1989) · Medical Care · doi:10.1097/00005650-198911000-00003 · Cited by 45
The Multifactorial Etiopathogeneses Interplay of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: An Overview
M’Koma, A. E. (2018) · Gastrointestinal Disorders · doi:10.3390/gidisord1010007 · Cited by 46
“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript CD Crohn’s disease MOOSE meta-analyses of observational studies PRISMA-P preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols MEDLINE Medical Literature Analysis and retrieval system online EMBASE Excerpta Medica dat…”
MethodInfluentialWang, W., Li, X., Liu, C., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., Diao, M., Tan, S.-Y., Huang, S., Cheng, Y., & You, T. (2022) · Bioscience Reports · doi:10.1042/bsr20211653 · Cited by 47
Jiang, H., Xu, L.-L., Li, Y.-C., Deng, M., Peng, C., & Ruan, B. (2016) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.09.001 · Cited by 48
“Because the outcome under study was rare in all populations and 106 subgroups under review, ORs were considered approximations of RR 107 (Greenland, 1987).”
BackgroundBody mass index and mortality in lung cancer patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Wang, J., Xu, H., Zhou, S., Wang, D., Zhu, L., Hou, J., Tang, J., Zhao, J., & Zhong, S. (2017) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2017.70 · Cited by 45
Association between phthalate exposure and asthma risk: A meta-analysis of observational studies
Wu, W., Wu, C., Ji, C., Diao, F., Peng, J., Luo, D., Mu, X., & Ruan, X. (2020) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113539 · Cited by 44
Yan, W. S., Wang, X., Dong, T., Sun, M., Zhang, M., Fang, K., Chen, Y., Chen, R., Sun, Z., & Xia, Y. (2020) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-020-09014-6 · Cited by 44
“92], where UCI and LCI represents the upper and lower confidence limits, respectively (Greenland 1987).”
BackgroundInfluentialLin, L., Li, T., Sun, M., Liang, Q., Ma, Y., Wang, F., Duan, J., & Sun, Z. (2022) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2022.112785 · Cited by 43
Margetts, B., Thompson, R. L., Key, T. J., Duffy, S. W., Nelson, M., Bingham, S. A., & Wiseman, M. J. (1995) · Nutrition and Cancer · doi:10.1080/01635589509514412 · Cited by 42
Oral contraceptives and venous thromboembolism: a quantitative discussion of the uncertainties
Koster, T., SMALL, R. ‐., Rosendaal, F. R., et al. (1995) · Journal of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.1995.tb00896.x · Cited by 44
Assessment of the Risk for Venous Thromboembolism Among Users of Hormone Replacement Therapy
Oger, E., & Scarabin, P. (1999) · Drugs & Aging · doi:10.2165/00002512-199914010-00004 · Cited by 44
“[26] The results of the homogenous studies were pooled into an overall estimate with a 95% confidence interval according to Woolf.”
MethodReduction in cancer risk by selective and nonselective cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors
Harris, R., Beebe, & Alshafie (2012) · Journal of Experimental Pharmacology · doi:10.2147/jep.s23826 · Cited by 43
“Methods developed by Schlesselman 25 and Greenland 26 were adapted for combined analysis of the data from these studies.”
Imaging the right atrium in pulmonary hypertension: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Richter, M. J., Fortuni, F., Alenezi, F. A. M., D’Alto, M., Badagliacca, R., Brunner, N. W., van Dijk, A. P. J., Douschan, P., Gall, H. J., Ghio, S., et al. (2022) · The Journal of Heart and Lung Transplantation · doi:10.1016/j.healun.2022.11.007 · Cited by 42
Praud, D., Deygas, F., Amadou, A., et al. (2023) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers15030927 · Cited by 43
“Heterogeneity was evaluated through the χ2 test and quantified through the I2 statistic, which represents the proportion of total variation attributable to between-study variance [31,32].”
MethodArnesen, E., Þórisdóttir, B., Bärebring, L., Söderlund, F., Nwaru, B. I., Spielau, U., Dierkes, J., Ramel, A., Lamberg-Allardt, C. J. E., & Åkesson, A. (2023) · Food & Nutrition Research · doi:10.29219/fnr.v67.8961 · Cited by 51
A meta‐analysis of normal ranges for root surface areas of the permanent dentition
Hujoel, P. P. (1994) · Journal Of Clinical Periodontology · doi:10.1111/j.1600-051x.1994.tb00310.x · Cited by 43
A meta-analysis of coffee and tea consumption and the risk of glioma in adults
Malerba, S., Galeone, C., Pelucchi, C., Turati, F., Hashibe, M., Vecchia, C. L., & Tavani, A. (2012) · Cancer Causes & Control · doi:10.1007/s10552-012-0126-4 · Cited by 43
Integrated Supply Chain Model for Sustainable Manufacturing: A System Dynamics Approach
Shamsuddoha, M. (2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1069-09642015000022b003 · Cited by 52
Breast Cancer and Deodorants/Antiperspirants: a Systematic Review
Allam, M. F. (2016) · Central European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.21101/cejph.a4475 · Cited by 43
Migraine as a risk factor for primary open angle glaucoma
Xu, C., Li, J., Li, Z., et al. (2018) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000011377 · Cited by 43
Prognosis after aortic root replacement with cryopreserved allografts in adults
Takkenberg, J. J. M., Eijkemans, M. J. C., van Herwerden, L. A., et al. (2003) · The Annals of Thoracic Surgery · doi:10.1016/s0003-4975(02)04722-7 · Cited by 43
Meta-analysis of observational epidemiological studies: a review.
Jones, D. R. H. (1992) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 43
Metadata
- Authors
- GREENLAND, S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- GREENLAND, SANDER
- ORCID
- GREENLAND, SANDER
- Venue
- Epidemiologic Reviews
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1987
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-30
- ISSN
- 0193-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1478-6729
- OpenAlex
- W1894101563
- Cited by
- 1,644
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 67 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 75 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 53
- FWCI
- 21.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Epidemiologic Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Keywords
- meta-analysis, quantitative methods, heterogeneity of study results
- MeSH terms
- Epidemiology, Humans, Mathematics, Models, Theoretical, Regression Analysis, Review Literature as Topic
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