Modeling the acute health effects of astronauts from exposure to large solar particle events
Abstract
Radiation exposure from Solar Particle Events (SPE) presents a significant health concern for astronauts for exploration missions outside the protection of the Earth's magnetic field, which could impair their performance and result in the possibility of failure of the mission. Assessing the potential for early radiation effects under such adverse conditions is of prime importance. Here we apply a biologically based mathematical model that describes the dose- and time-dependent early human responses that constitute the prodromal syndromes to consider acute risks from SPEs. We examine the possible early effects on crews from exposure to some historically large solar events on lunar and/or Mars missions. The doses and dose rates of specific organs were calculated using the Baryon radiation transport (BRYNTRN) code and a computerized anatomical man model, while the hazard of the early radiation effects and performance reduction were calculated using the Radiation-Induced Performance Decrement (RIPD) code. Based on model assumptions we show that exposure to these historical events would cause moderate early health effects to crew members inside a typical spacecraft or during extra-vehicular activities, if effective shielding and medical countermeasure tactics were not provided. We also calculate possible even worse cases (double intensity, multiple occurrences in a short period of time, etc.) to estimate the severity, onset and duration of various types of early illness. Uncertainties in the calculation due to limited data on relative biological effectiveness and dose-rate modifying factors for protons and secondary radiation, and the identification of sensitive sites in critical organs are discussed.
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Solar particle events (SPEs) can result in sufficiently high radiation doses to cause the symptoms of acute radiation sickness (ARS) in astronauts outside the protection of Earth's geomagnetic field, as well as threaten mission success.
“Occasional periods of high energy particle flux from the sun, known as SPEs, can result in sufficiently high radiation doses to cause the symptoms of acute radiation sickness (ARS) in astronauts outside the protection of Earth's geomagnetic field, as well as threaten mission success [27].”
From Hindlimb suspension and spe-like radiation impairs clearance of bacterial infections (2014) · cites this paper as [27]
Using the historical August 1972 SPE, the estimated doses that an astronaut could receive would be 3215 cGy to the skin and 138.4 cGy-equivalent (cGy-eq) to the blood forming organs during EVA.
“Using the historical August 1972 SPE, the estimated doses that an astronaut could receive would be 3215 cGy to the skin and 138.4 cGy-equivalent (cGy-eq) to the blood forming organs during EVA [27].”
From Hindlimb suspension and spe-like radiation impairs clearance of bacterial infections (2014) · cites this paper as [27]
During extravehicular activities without Earth's magnetic field protection, an astronaut could receive 32 Gy of radiation to the skin and 2 Gy to the bone marrow during a strong SPE.
“During extravehicular activities without this protection, an astronaut could receive 32 Gy of radiation to the skin and 2 Gy to the bone marrow during a strong SPE [27], [29].”
From Hindlimb suspension and spe-like radiation impairs clearance of bacterial infections (2014) · cites this paper as [27]
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“Of particular concern is exposure to ionizing radiation from a solar particle event (SPE), in which magnetic disturbances in specific regions of the sun result in the release of intense bursts of ionizing radiation, consisting primarily of protons, which could cause severe adverse health effects (3).”
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“As a result, NASA's radiation protection approaches against SEP exposure will require effective in-flight shielding strategies combined with real-time, operational radiation environment monitoring and risk analysis tools (Cucinotta et al., 2010; Hu et al., 2009).”
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“Th e estimated dose from the 1972 SPE to BFO inside a spacecraft is (approximately) 46 cGy, nearly twice the lowest dose used in these experiments; during an EVA, the dose to BFO is expected to be approximately 138 cGy (Hu et al. 2009).”
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“This unique energy profile is predicted to produce a highly inhomogeneous dose distribution (with skin receiving a greater dose than internal organs) for which the dose– toxicity relationship is incompletely understood (1, 2).”
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“Several well-known non-terrestrial sources of radiation originate in the space environment, including solar particle event (SPE) radiation (7) and galactic cosmic radiation (8), which are of particular concern for astronaut health.”
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“As described in the Introduction, a dose of 1.38 Gy has been estimated by Hu et al. (2009) as the dose that astronauts could have received to the BFO from EVA during that SPE.”
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“Such sudden increases in SEP intensity present a major radiation hazard to astronauts, adversely affecting the success of space missions [Hu et al., 2009].”
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“An astronaut exposed to an SPE could receive over 25 Gy of radiation to the skin (23).”
BackgroundIssues and challenges of space radiation risk assessment in manned deep space exploration missions
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Ionizing Radiation Selectively Reduces Skin Regulatory T Cells and Alters Immune Function
Zhou, Y., Ni, H., Balint, K., Sanzari, J. K., Dentchev, T., Diffenderfer, E. S., Wilson, J. M., Cengel, K. A., & Weissman, D. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100800 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“It is calculated that an astronaut could receive up to 32 Gy of radiation to the skin and 2 Gy to the bone marrow during a strong SPE, if exposure occurs during extravehicular activity (EVA) [4,5].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSanzari, J. K., Wan, S., Diffenderfer, E. S., Cengel, K. A., & Kennedy, A. R. (2013) · Journal of Radiation Research · doi:10.1093/jrr/rrt108 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Due to the inhomogeneous dose distribution of SPE radiation, with most of the protons in SPE radiation having energies ≤ 50 MeV, SPE radiation is expected to give a high superficial absorbed dose to the skin and significantly lower absorbed doses to internal organs [5], whereas X-rays and γ-rays are expected to result…”
BackgroundLi, M., Holmes, V. M., Ni, H., Sanzari, J. K., Romero-Weaver, A. L., Lin, L., Cárabe, A., Diffenderfer, E. S., Kennedy, A. R., & Weissman, D. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120126 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“An astronaut can receive up to 2 Gy of proton radiation to the bone marrow during a strong SPE while on an extravehicular excursion [38,39], which is a dose that has been shown to suppress the bone marrow and alter immune function [40–42].”
BackgroundUpadhyay, M., Rajagopal, M. U., Gill, K., Li, Y., Bansal, S., Sridharan, V., Tyburski, J. B., Boerma, M., & Cheema, A. K. (2020) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo10060252 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
BS, J. B. T. E. A. (2013) · Journal of Pulmonary & Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.4172/2161-105x.1000158 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“astronauts are exposed to challenges that may pose potential health risks [1-4].”
BackgroundAcute radiation risk assessment and mitigation strategies in near future exploration spaceflights
Hu, S., Barzilla, J., & Semones, E. (2019) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2019.10.006 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationCross Calibration of the GPS Constellation CXD Proton Data With GOES EPS
Carver, M. R., Sullivan, J. P., Morley, S. K., & Rodriguez, J. V. (2018) · Space Weather · doi:10.1002/2017sw001750 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Additionally, resources in orbit face increased risk due to these energetic particle fluxes (Baker, 2000; Hu et al., 2009).”
Pietrofesa, R. A. (2014) · Journal of Pulmonary & Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.4172/2161-105x.1000215 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Extravehicular activities (EVAs) for assembly and maintenance activities at the International Space Station (ISS) [1], or EVAs during interplanetary missions expose astronauts to challenges that may pose potential health risks [2-5].”
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Pharmacogenomics in Spaceflight
Schmidt, M. A., Schmidt, C. M., & Goodwin, T. J. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05526-4_26 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Regolith-based lunar habitat for astronaut radiation protection and organ dose assessment
Blunier, S., Athanasopoulos, D., Dittmar, C., Thoresen, F., Cowley, A., & Fogtman, A. (2025) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2025.106116 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Analyses of the Secondary Particle Radiation and the DNA Damage It Causes to Human Keratinocytes
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Dermatopathology effects of simulated solar particle event radiation exposure in the porcine model
Sanzari, J. K., Diffenderfer, E. S., Hagan, S., Billings, P. C., Gridley, D. S., Seykora, J. T., Kennedy, A. R., & Cengel, K. A. (2015) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2015.06.003 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Based on SPE events taking place in 1972 and 1989, skin doses to astronauts conducting EVAs were predicted to range from 7-32 Gy [2].”
BackgroundSpace Radiation Effects on Crew During and After Deep Space Missions
Straume, T. (2018) · Current Pathobiology Reports · doi:10.1007/s40139-018-0175-9 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Linking Doses with Clinical Scores of Hematopoietic Acute Radiation Syndrome
Hu, S. (2016) · Health Physics · doi:10.1097/hp.0000000000000529 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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Kim, M. Y., Hu, S., Nounu, H. N., & Cucinotta, F. A. (2010) · NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationHu, S., & Cucinotta, F. A. (2010) · Radiation Protection Dosimetry · doi:10.1093/rpd/ncq520 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationWhat can space radiation protection learn from radiation oncology?
Tinganelli, W., Luoni, F., & Durante, M. (2021) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2021.06.002 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Environmental Radiation Effects on Mammals
Smirnova, O. A. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-45761-1 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
An easy-to-use function to assess deep space radiation in human brains
Khaksarighiri, S., Guo, J., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R., & Narici, L. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-90695-5 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Ramsar, Iran, as a Natural Radiobiological Surrogate for Mars
Welsh, J. S., Bevelacqua, J. J., & Mortazavi, S. M. J. (2022) · Health Physics · doi:10.1097/hp.0000000000001521 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Pagliarello, R., Bennici, E., Sarcina, I. D., Villani, M. E., Desiderio, A., Nardi, L., Benvenuto, E., Cemmi, A., & Massa, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2023.1266199 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Space radiation electrostatic shielding scaling laws: Beam-like and isotropic angular distributions
Chowdhury, R. P., Stegeman, L., Padilla, R. F. S., Lund, M., Madzunkov, S. M., Fry, D. J., & Bahadori, A. A. (2021) · Journal of Applied Physics · doi:10.1063/5.0046599 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Increased intracranial pressure in mini-pigs exposed to simulated solar particle event radiation
Sanzari, J. K., Muehlmatt, A., Savage, A. R., Lin, L., & Kennedy, A. R. (2013) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.10.006 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The dose distribution of SPE radiation is inhomogenous, with a larger superficial absorbed dose and a lower absorbed dose to internal organs [6].”
BackgroundSanzari, J. K., Wan, X. S., Muehlmatt, A., Lin, L., & Kennedy, A. R. (2014) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2014.12.002 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
How “Rad” Is a Trip to Space? A Brief Discussion of Radiation Exposure in Suborbital Space Tourism
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“3 mGy/day.(5,6) Despite intensive research, knowledge of the risks associated with extended exposure to space radiation is still limited and presents a great scope for further studies.”
BackgroundSegmental interpolating spectra for solar particle events and in situ validation
Hu, S., Zeitlin, C. J., Atwell, W., Fry, D. J., Barzilla, J., & Semones, E. (2016) · Space Weather · doi:10.1002/2016sw001476 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationSmirnova, O. A., & Cucinotta, F. A. (2017) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2017.12.002 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Time variations in Galactic cosmic rays as measured from Southeast Asia
Ruffolo, D. (2020) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1572/1/012087 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Cancer and circulatory disease risks for the largest solar particle events in the space age
Cucinotta, F. A., & Pak, S. (2023) · Life Sciences in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2023.10.003 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Space Pharmacology: How Space Affects Pharmacology
Wotring, V. E. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56637-5_68-1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A novel, population-based approach to astronaut radiation risk assessment
Chowdhury, R. P., Stoffle, N., Rios, R. R., Stegeman, L., & Bahadori, A. A. (2020) · Radiation Physics and Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2020.108736 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
ARRT Development for the Upcoming Human Exploration Missions
Hu, S., Monadjemi, S., Barzilla, J., & Semones, E. (2020) · Space Weather · doi:10.1029/2020sw002586 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationProton-induced DNA damage promotes integration of foreign plasmid DNA into human genome
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Pharmacogenomics in Spaceflight
Schmidt, M. A., Schmidt, C. M., & Goodwin, T. J. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-50909-9_26-1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Combined effects of heavy ion exposure and simulated Lunar gravity on skeletal muscle
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Real-time dose prediction for Artemis missions
Hu, S., Barzilla, J., Núñez, M., & Semones, E. (2024) · Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate · doi:10.1051/swsc/2024037 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The estimated organ doses at the crew locations are utilized as inputs to a set of biological response models, which predict clinically critical syndromes associated with ARS and quantify Radiation‐Induced Performance Decrement (RIPD; Hu et al., 2009, 2012; Hu & Cucinotta, 2011).”
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Acute Risks of Space Radiation
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The Impact of Space Radiation on Brains of Future Martian and Lunar Explorers
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The sequence preference of gamma radiation mutagenesis using a novel in vitro model
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The Use of Pro/Engineer CAD Software and Fishbowl Tool Kit in Ray-tracing Analysis
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Radiation Dose Assessment by Using Lymphocyte Counts
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Acute Risks of Space Radiation
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Wałpuski, G., Rafalski, A., Galas, M., Szefliński, Z., & Zienkiewicz, M. (2025) · Environmental and Experimental Botany · doi:10.1016/j.envexpbot.2025.106231 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Hu, S., Kim, M.-H. Y., McClellan, G. E., & Cucinotta, F. A.
- Affiliations
- Universities Space Research Association (US)
- Applied Research Associates (United States) (US)
- Johnson Space Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hu, Shaowen
- Kim, Myung-Hee Y.
- Venue
- Health Physics
- Published
- 2009-04
- Volume
- 96
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 465-476
- ISSN
- 0017-9078 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2064540451
- Cited by
- 125
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 7.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Health Physics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) (submittedVersion)
- NASA Technical Reports Server (NASA)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Radiation Therapy and Dosimetry
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Effects of Radiation Exposure
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Spaceflight effects on biology
- Keywords
- solar energetic particle events, astronaut radiation exposure, acute radiation effects, spacecraft shielding, lunar and Mars missions, extravehicular activity, relative biological effectiveness, secondary radiation, protons
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Male, Radiation Dosage, Relative Biological Effectiveness, Occupational Exposure, Astronauts, Solar Activity
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