N-acetylcysteine Boosts Brain and Blood Glutathione in Gaucher and Parkinson Diseases
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine if the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is able to alter peripheral and central redox capabilities in patients with Parkinson disease (PD) or Gaucher disease (GD). METHODS: The study included nondemented adult subjects: 3 with PD, 3 with GD, and 3 healthy controls. Baseline brain glutathione (GSH) concentrations were measured using 7-T magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Baseline blood reduced-to-oxidized GSH ratios were determined for each subject. Brain GSH concentrations and blood redox ratios were then determined during and at specified time points after a single, 150-mg/kg NAC infusion. RESULTS: N-acetylcysteine increased blood GSH redox ratios in those with PD and GD and healthy controls, which was followed by an increase in brain GSH concentrations in all subjects. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first demonstration that with MRS, it is possible to directly measure and monitor increases in brain GSH levels in the human brain in response to a single, intravenous administration of NAC. This work shows the potential utility of MRS monitoring, which could assist in determining dosing regimens for clinical trials of this potentially useful antioxidant therapy for PD disease, GD, and other neurodegenerative disorders.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In trial with PD patients, GSH level monitored by MRI following intravenously administrated 150 mg/kg of NAC; in all studied subjects GSH increased, returned to original level after 120 min.
“In a trial with patients suffering from PD was glutathione (GSH) level quantitatively monitored by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) following intravenously administrated 150 mg/kg of NAC. In all studied subjects the level of GSH increased, however, returned back to its original level after 120 min (Holmay et al. 2013).”
From Reactive Oxygen Species, Toxicity, Oxidative Stress, and Antioxidants: Chronic Diseases and Aging (2023) · cites this paper as Holmay et al. 2013
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Multicenter Analysis of Glucocerebrosidase Mutations in Parkinson's Disease
Sidransky, E., Nalls, M. A., Aasly, J. O., Aharon-Peretz, J., Annesi, G., Barbosa, E. R., Bar-Shira, A., Berg, D., Bras, J., Brice, A., et al. (2009) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa0901281 · Cited by 2,135 · see citing works
Oxidative stress in Parkinson's disease
Jenner, P. (2003) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.10483 · Cited by 2,053 · see citing works
Metabolism and functions of glutathione in brain
Dringen, R. (2000) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(99)00060-x · Cited by 1,702 · see citing works
Proton NMR chemical shifts and coupling constants for brain metabolites
Govindaraju, V., Young, K., & Maudsley, A. A. (2000) · NMR in Biomedicine · doi:10.1002/1099-1492(200005)13:3 · Cited by 1,695 · see citing works
Automatic quantitation of localized in vivo1H spectra with LCModel
Provencher, S. W. (2001) · NMR in Biomedicine · doi:10.1002/nbm.698 · Cited by 1,640 · see citing works
Sian, J., Dexter, D. T., Lees, A. J., Daniel, S., Agid, Y., Javoy‐Agid, F., Jenner, P., & Marsden, C. D. (1994) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410360305 · Cited by 1,161 · cited 4× · see citing works
“In this study, we focused on the occipital cortex rather than the substantia nigra, where a GSH deficit has been detected postmortem in PD.(1) Because of challenges associated with MRS in the substantia nigra in humans, including its location, very small size (limiting signal-to-noise ratio), and high iron content (gi…”
BackgroundInfluentialBeal, M. F. (2002) · Free Radical Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0891-5849(02)00780-3 · Cited by 763 · see citing works
Neuronal glutathione deficiency and age-dependent neurodegeneration in the EAAC1 deficient mouse
Aoyama, K., Suh, S. W., Hamby, A. M., Liu, J., Chan, W. Y., Chen, Y., & Swanson, R. A. (2006) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1609 · Cited by 484 · see citing works
Analysis of macromolecule resonances in 1 H NMR spectra of human brain
Behar, K. L., Rothman, D. L., Spencer, D. D., & Petroff, O. A. C. (1994) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.1910320304 · Cited by 468 · cited 1× · see citing works
“680 seconds).(24) Metabolites quantified with Cramér-Rao lower bounds (estimated error of the metabolite quantification) greater than 50% or correlation coefficient less than −0.”
MethodGrant, J. E., Odlaug, B. L., & Won Kim, S. (2009) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.60 · Cited by 424 · cited 1× · see citing works
“There are reports of positive effects of oral NAC in disorders with central nervous system involvement.(29,30) Future studies are necessary to determine if oral NAC affects brain [GSH] and if so, to establish optimal dosage regimens to attain sustained elevation of brain [GSH] with repeated dosing.”
BackgroundTkáč, I., Öz, G., Adriany, G., Uǧurbil, K., & Rolf Gruetter, A. (2009) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.22086 · Cited by 366 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Metabolite Quantification Metabolites were quantified using LCModel(21) as described before.(18,20) The metabolite model spectra were generated based on previously reported chemical shifts and coupling constants.”
MethodSelf-citationRegulation of Neuronal Glutathione Synthesis
Aoyama, K., Watabe, M., & Nakaki, T. (2008) · Journal of Pharmacological Sciences · doi:10.1254/jphs.08r01cr · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine for patients with probable Alzheimer’s disease
Adair, J. C., Knoefel, J. E., & Morgan, N. (2001) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.57.8.1515 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Öz, G., & Tkáč, I. (2010) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.22708 · Cited by 203 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Metabolite Quantification Metabolites were quantified using LCModel(21) as described before.(18,20) The metabolite model spectra were generated based on previously reported chemical shifts and coupling constants.”
MethodSelf-citationAssaf, Y., & Cohen, Y. (2000) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/(sici)1522-2594(200002)43:2 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Emir, U. E., Tuite, P., & Öz, G. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030918 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Self-citationExploring the link between glucocerebrosidase mutations and parkinsonism
Westbroek, W., Gustafson, A. M., & Sidransky, E. (2011) · Trends in Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2011.05.003 · Cited by 144 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Altered GBA enzyme activity appears to contribute to increased α-synuclein misfolding and aggregation, which may also be enhanced by altered redox status within neurons.(9) Because GSH depletion in PD and an impaired adaptive response to oxidative stress in GD have both been observed, antioxidants that increase GSH ma…”
BackgroundRandomized, double‐blind, pilot evaluation of intravenous glutathione in Parkinson's disease
Hauser, R. A., Lyons, K. E., McClain, T., Carter, S., & Perlmutter, D. (2009) · Movement Disorders · doi:10.1002/mds.22401 · Cited by 143 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Unfortunately, past PD research using intravenously administered GSH failed to provide a definitive benefit.(10) This failure may be related to a suboptimal dosing regimen but more likely is due to the saturable mechanism for GSH passage across the blood-brain barrier as well as a lack of uptake into neurons.”
N‐acetylcysteine prevents loss of dopaminergic neurons in the EAAC1−/− mouse
Berman, A., Chan, W., Brennan, A. M., Reyes, R. C., Adler, B. L., Suh, S. W., Kauppinen, T. M., Edling, Y., & Swanson, R. A. (2010) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.22162 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Mitochondrial alterations in Parkinson’s disease: new clues
Vila, M., Ramonet, D., & Perier, C. (2008) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05604.x · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Öz, G., Terpstra, M., Tkáč, I., Aia, P., Lowary, J., Tuite, P., & Rolf Gruetter, A. (2006) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.20761 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Self-citationRole ofN-acetylcysteine and cystine in glutathione synthesis in human erythrocytes
Whillier, S., Raftos, J. E., Chapman, B. E., & Kuchel, P. W. (2009) · Redox Report · doi:10.1179/135100009x392539 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Sandhir, R., Sood, A., Mehrotra, A., & Kamboj, S. S. (2012) · Neurodegenerative Diseases · doi:10.1159/000334273 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Hurd, R. W., Wilder, B. J., Helveston, W. R., & Uthman, B. M. (1996) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.47.5.1264 · Cited by 82 · cited 1× · see citing works
“There are reports of positive effects of oral NAC in disorders with central nervous system involvement.(29,30) Future studies are necessary to determine if oral NAC affects brain [GSH] and if so, to establish optimal dosage regimens to attain sustained elevation of brain [GSH] with repeated dosing.”
BackgroundProteasomal dysfunction in sporadic Parkinson's disease
McNaught, K. S. P., Jackson, T., JnoBaptiste, R., Kapustin, A., & Olanow, C. W. (2006) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.66.10_suppl_4.s37 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Quantitative assessment of cerebral blood volume by single-photon emission computed tomography.
Sabatini, U., Celsis, P., Viallard, G., Rascol, A., & Marc-Vergnes, J. P. (1991) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/01.str.22.3.324 · Cited by 54 · cited 1× · see citing works
“However, blood makes up only approximately 3% of the volume in the brain.(26) Thus, the change detected in brain [GSH] in this study could not be due primarily to the contribution of blood GSH because the mean maximal increase in blood GSH of 30%measured in this study would only lead to an MRS voxel [GSH] increase of…”
BackgroundDeganuto, M., Pittis, M. G., Pines, A., Dominissini, S., Kelley, M. R., Garcia, R. C., Quadrifoglio, F., Bembi, B., & Tell, G. (2007) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.21023 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Changes in the Provision of Institutionalized Mental Health Care in Post-Communist Countries
Mundt, A. P., Frančišković, T., Gurovich, I., Heinz, A., Ignatyev, Y., Ismayilov, F., Kalapos, M. P., Krasnov, V. N., Mihai, A., Mir, J., et al. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038490 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Blood oxidative stress markers in Gaucher disease patients
Roversi, F. M., Galdieri, L. C., Grego, B. H. C., Souza, F. G., Micheletti, C., Martins, A. M., & D’Almeida, V. (2005) · Clinica Chimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.cca.2005.07.022 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- [23]Tká I Refinement of simulated basis set for LCModel analysis Proceedings 16th Scientific Meeting, International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine Toronto 2008 1624
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Reactive Oxygen Species, Toxicity, Oxidative Stress, and Antioxidants: Chronic Diseases and Aging
Jomova, K., Raptova, R., Alomar, S. Y., Alwasel, S. H., Nepovimova, E., Kuca, K., & Valko, M. (2023) · Archives of Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s00204-023-03562-9 · Cited by 2,638 · see citing works
Oxidative Stress in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Simonian, N. A., & Coyle, J. T. (1996) · Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology · doi:10.1146/annurev.pa.36.040196.000503 · Cited by 1,377 · see citing works
Oxidative Stress in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Niedzielska, E., Smaga, I., Gawlik, M., Moniczewski, A., Stankowicz, P., Pera, J., & Filip, M. (2016) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-015-9337-5 · Cited by 800 · see citing works
N-Acetylcysteine (NAC): Impacts on Human Health
Tenório, M. C. D. S., Graciliano, N. G., Moura, F. A., Oliveira, A. C. M. D., & Goulart, M. O. F. (2021) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox10060967 · Cited by 526 · see citing works
Clinical trials of N-acetylcysteine in psychiatry and neurology: A systematic review
Deepmala, Slattery, J., Kumar, N., Delhey, L., Berk, M., Dean, O., Spielholz, C., & Frye, R. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.04.015 · Cited by 463 · see citing works
N‐acetylcysteine (NAC) in neurological disorders: mechanisms of action and therapeutic opportunities
Shahripour, R. B., Harrigan, M. R., & Alexandrov, A. V. (2014) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.208 · Cited by 412 · see citing works
“NCT01370954 Completed.”
InfluentialAoyama, K. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22095010 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
“However, intravenous administration of NAC increased brain GSH levels by 55% in patients with PD [141].”
BackgroundFerroptosis in Parkinson’s disease: glia–neuron crosstalk
Wang, Z.-L., Yuan, L., Li, W., & Li, J.-Y. (2022) · Trends in Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2022.02.003 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
Overview on the Effects of N-Acetylcysteine in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Tardiolo, G., Bramanti, P., & Mazzon, E. (2018) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules23123305 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
“The treatment with NAC has shown an increase in blood GSH redox ratios in patients-treated and healthy controls, which was followed by an increase in brain GSH levels in all nine participants and no adverse events were observed [143].”
Glutathione redox imbalance in brain disorders
Gu, F., Chauhan, V. P. S., & Chauhan, A. (2014) · Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care · doi:10.1097/mco.0000000000000134 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Targeting oxidative stress improves disease outcomes in a rat model of acquired epilepsy
Pauletti, A., Terrone, G., Shekh‐Ahmad, T., Salamone, A., Ravizza, T., Rizzi, M., Pastore, A., Pascente, R., Liang, L., Villa, B. R., et al. (2019) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awz130 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
A Review of Dietary (Phyto)Nutrients for Glutathione Support
Minich, D. M., & Brown, B. I. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11092073 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
“Another study [54] looking at those with neurodegenerative disorders found that a single intravenous dose of NAC led to an increase of the blood GSH/GSSG ratio and levels of glutathione in the brain.”
BackgroundRetracted: Targeting oxidative stress improves disease outcomes in a rat model of acquired epilepsy
Pauletti, A., Terrone, G., Shekh‐Ahmad, T., Salamone, A., Ravizza, T., Rizzi, M., Pastore, A., Pascente, R., Liang, L.-P., Villa, B. R., et al. (2017) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awx117 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
RetractedThe Glutathione System in Parkinson’s Disease and Its Progression
Bjørklund, G., Peana, M., Maes, M., Dadar, M., & Severin, B. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.10.004 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Ferroptosis in Parkinson's disease: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential
Ding, X.-S., Gao, L., Han, Z., Eleuteri, S., Shi, W., Shen, Y., Song, Z.-Y., Su, M., Yang, Q., Qu, Y., et al. (2023) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2023.102077 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Öz, G., Deelchand, D. K., Wijnen, J. P., Mlynárik, V., Xin, L., Ralf Mekle, A., Noeske, R., Scheenen, T. W. J., Tkáč, I., & the Experts' Working Group on Advanced Single Voxel H MRS (2020) · NMR in Biomedicine · doi:10.1002/nbm.4236 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
“In neurologic diseases, advanced MRS protocols at high field have allowed the detection of subtle metabolite differences between patient and control groups,(77) including at very early and premanifest stages,(78) and have helped to monitor treatment response.(79) Advanced MRS has also been used in drug discovery appli…”
BackgroundSelf-citationColes, L. D., Tuite, P. J., Öz, G., Mishra, U. R., Kartha, R. V., Sullivan, K. M., Cloyd, J. C., & Terpstra, M. (2018) · The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology · doi:10.1002/jcph.1008 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Self-citationRae, C. D., & Williams, S. R. (2016) · Analytical Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.ab.2016.12.022 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Conus, P., Seidman, L. J., Fournier, M., Xin, L., Cleusix, M., Baumann, P., Ferrari, C., Cousins, A., Alameda, L., Gholam‐Rezaee, M., et al. (2017) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbx093 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Sun, Y., He, L., Wang, T., Wan, H., Qin, H., Wang, J., Wang, L., Gu, W., Li, T., Li, N., et al. (2020) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-020-02049-3 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Dwivedi, D., Megha, K., Mishra, R., & Mandal, P. K. (2020) · Neurochemical Research · doi:10.1007/s11064-020-03030-1 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Monti, D., Zabrecky, G. P., Kremens, D. E., Liang, T., Wintering, N., Cai, J., Wei, X., Bazzan, A. J., Li, Z., Bowen, B., et al. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157602 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“Furthermore, an MRS study of 3 patients with PD showed that blood glutathione increased after the start of an NAC infusion and reached a maximum at approximately 60 to 75 minutes [10].”
BackgroundTargeting urate to reduce oxidative stress in Parkinson disease
Crotty, G. F., Ascherio, A., & Schwarzschild, M. A. (2017) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2017.06.017 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“Nacetylcysteine given orally or intravenously has been shown to increase GSH levels in the blood, brain and cerebrospinal fluid (117,118).”
BackgroundTherapeutic inhibition of ferroptosis in neurodegenerative disease
Ryan, S. K., Ugalde, C. L., Rolland, A., Skidmore, J., Devos, D., & Hammond, T. R. (2023) · Trends in Pharmacological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tips.2023.07.007 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
N‐Acetyl Cysteine Is Associated With Dopaminergic Improvement in Parkinson's Disease
Monti, D. A., Zabrecky, G., Kremens, D., Liang, T., Wintering, N. A., Bazzan, A. J., Zhong, L., Bowens, B. K., Chervoneva, I., Intenzo, C., et al. (2019) · Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1002/cpt.1548 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“For this study open label study, we used a combination of oral and i.v. NAC.”
BackgroundInfluentialDietary prophage inducers and antimicrobials: toward landscaping the human gut microbiome
Boling, L., Cuevas, D., Grasis, J. A., Kang, H. S., Knowles, B., Levi, K., Maughan, H., McNair, K. A., Rojas, M. I., Sanchez, S. E., et al. (2020) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.1080/19490976.2019.1701353 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Current Pharmaceutical Treatments and Alternative Therapies of Parkinson's Disease
Dong, J., Cui, Y., Li, S., & Le, W. (2016) · Current Neuropharmacology · doi:10.2174/1570159x14666151120123025 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
The effect of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) on human cognition – A systematic review
Skvarc, D., Dean, O. M., Byrne, L. K., Gray, L. J., Lane, S. E., Lewis, M., Fernandes, B. S., Berk, M., & Marriott, A. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.04.013 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“Further, there is clinical evidence to suggest NAC may be neuroprotective based on imaging data (Amen et al., 2011a,b, 2013; Holmay et al., 2012; Levin et al., 2014).”
Martinelli, C., Pucci, C., Battaglini, M., Marino, A., & Ciofani, G. (2019) · Advanced Healthcare Materials · doi:10.1002/adhm.201901589 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Henning, A. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.07.017 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“Six of the studies used short TE single voxel spectroscopy - four with STEAM (Atassi et al 2017, Emir et al 2012, Harris et al 2016, Zielman et al 2014) and two with semi-LASER localization (Cheong et al 2017, Holmay et al 2013).”
BackgroundMethodCognitive effects of adjunctive N-acetyl cysteine in psychosis
Rapado‐Castro, M., Dodd, S., Bush, A. I., Malhi, G. S., Skvarc, D., On, Z. X., Berk, M., & Dean, O. M. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291716002932 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“In addition to its glutamatergic modulation effects, NAC has been shown to potently make an impact on oxidative biology, both by increasing GSH levels and directly scavenging free radicals (Choy et al. 2010; Holmay et al. 2013).”
BackgroundN-acetylcysteine Pharmacology and Applications in Rare Diseases—Repurposing an Old Antioxidant
Sahasrabudhe, S. A., Terluk, M. R., & Kartha, R. V. (2023) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox12071316 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“demonstrated a 34% increase in brain GSH in real time, even in healthy participants, following an IV infusion of NAC at 150 mg/kg dosage [65].”
BackgroundHow to Increase Cellular Glutathione
Giustarini, D., Milzani, A., Dalle‐Donne, I., & Rossi, R. (2023) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox12051094 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Emerging therapies for Parkinson's disease: From bench to bedside
Tarazi, F. I., Sahli, Z. T., Wolny, M., & Mousa, S. A. (2014) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.05.010 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“A recent clinical trial found that intravenous infusion of NAC increased brain and blood levels of the potent antioxidant glutathione in PD patients (Holmay et al., 2013).”
BackgroundOld and new challenges in Parkinson's disease therapeutics
Pires, A. O., Teixeira, F. G., Mendes-Pinheiro, B., Serra, S. C., Sousa, N., & Salgado, A. J. (2017) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2017.04.006 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“In a recent clinical trial, Holmay and colleagues (Holmay et al., 2013) demonstrated that, after intravenous injection of NAC, there was a boost in antioxidant glutathione levels on the brain and blood of PD patients.”
BackgroundCurrent perspective of mitochondrial biology in Parkinson's disease
Kaidery, N. A., & Thomas, B. (2018) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2018.03.001 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Role of Dietary Supplements in the Management of Parkinson’s Disease
Ciulla, M., Marinelli, L., Cacciatore, I., & Stefano, A. D. (2019) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom9070271 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“in 2013 investigated the potential antioxidant properties of NAC by measuring the level of GSH in patients with PD before and after its administration [59].”
BackgroundBehl, T., Kaur, G., Frățilă, O., Buhaș, C. L., Pusta, C. T. J., Negruţ, N., Bustea, C., & BUNGAU, S. G. (2021) · Translational Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/s40035-020-00226-x · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Elevating the levels of glutathione as an antioxidant may be a therapeutic strategy, which can be achieved by administration of N-acetylcysteine [121, 122].”
BackgroundKatz, M., Won, S. J., Park, Y. H., Orr, A., Jones, D. P., Swanson, R. A., & Glass, G. A. (2015) · Parkinsonism & Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2015.02.020 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Recent magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies indicate increased brain GSH levels following intravenous administration of NAC, an effect presumably occurring in the intracellular compartment [19].”
BackgroundAntioxidant Therapeutics in Parkinson’s Disease: Current Challenges and Opportunities
Duarte-Jurado, A. P., Gopar‐Cuevas, Y., Cárdenas, O. S., Loera‐Arias, M. D. J., Montes‐de‐Oca‐Luna, R., García‐García, A., & Rodríguez‐Rocha, H. (2021) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox10030453 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Dietary thiols in exercise: oxidative stress defence, exercise performance, and adaptation
McLeay, Y., Stannard, S. R., Houltham, S., & Starck, C. S. (2017) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s12970-017-0168-9 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Oxidative Stress in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Simonian, N. A. (1996) · The Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology · doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.36.1.83 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Increasing Nrf2 Activity as a Treatment Approach in Neuropsychiatry
Morris, G., Walker, A. J., Walder, K. R., Berk, M., Marx, W., Carvalho, A. F., Maes, M. H. J., & Puri, B. K. (2021) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-020-02212-w · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Jenkins, D., Wiest, D. B., Mulvihill, D. M., Hlavacek, A. M., Majstoravich, S. J., Brown, T. R., Taylor, J. J., Buckley, J. R., Turner, R. P., Rollins, L. G., et al. (2015) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.09.076 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
A Review of the Clinical Evidence for Complementary and Alternative Therapies in Parkinson’s Disease
Bega, D., González-Latapí, P., Zadikoff, C., & Simuni, T. (2014) · Current Treatment Options in Neurology · doi:10.1007/s11940-014-0314-5 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
N‐acetylcysteine as a new prominent approach for treating psychiatric disorders
Smaga, I., Frankowska, M., & Filip, M. (2021) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.15456 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Clinical trials have shown that NAC normalizes glutamate levels and alters the levels of GSH and other markers (glutamate and glycine) in patients suffering from psychiatric disorders (Das et al., 2013; Holmay et al., 2013; Schmaal et al., 2011, 2012).”
BackgroundCentral nervous system uptake of intranasal glutathione in Parkinson’s disease
Mischley, L. K., Conley, K. E., Shankland, E. G., Kavanagh, T. J., Rosenfeld, M. E., Duda, J. E., White, C. C., Wilbur, T. K., Torre, P. U. D. L., & Padowski, J. M. (2016) · npj Parkinson s Disease · doi:10.1038/npjparkd.2016.2 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“The authors reported that maximal brain GSH concentrations were measured ~ 90–110 min after the start of the infusion, and had not returned to baseline levels by 120 min after the start of the infusion.(15) These results support the hypothesis that NAC is capable of crossing the blood–brain barrier and providing cyste…”
BackgroundMethodResultThe heart of PD: Lewy body diseases as neurocardiologic disorders
Goldstein, D. S., & Sharabi, Y. (2017) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2017.09.033 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Therapeutic potential of glutathione-enhancers in stress-related psychopathologies
Zalachoras, I., Hollis, F., Ramos‐Fernández, E., Trovò, L., Sonnay, S., Geiser, E., Preitner, N., Steiner, P., Sandi, C., & Morató, L. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.03.015 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Drug Repurposing in Parkinson’s Disease
Athauda, D. S., & Foltynie, T. (2018) · CNS Drugs · doi:10.1007/s40263-018-0548-y · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Advances in GBA-associated Parkinson's disease – Pathology, presentation and therapies
Barkhuizen, M., Anderson, D. G., & Grobler, A. (2015) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2015.12.004 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“This can be achieved by N-acetylcysteine administration (Holmay et al., 2013).”
Hara, Y., Fillit, H. M., Dacks, P. A., & McKeehan, N. (2017) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.14283/jpad.2017.22 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“A single intravenous infusion of N‐ acetylcysteine (150 mg/kg) increased blood and brain glutathione concentrations in patients with Parkinson’s disease, Gaucher disease, and healthy controls (22).”
BackgroundThe natural history of type 2 Gaucher disease in the 21st century
Lal, T. R., Seehra, G., Steward, A., Poffenberger, C. N., Ryan, E., Tayebi, N., Lopez, G. J., & Sidransky, E. (2020) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000010605 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“N-acetylcysteine, used as an adjuvant therapy in neurodegenerative disorders due to its antioxidant and antiinflammatory activity, was tried in one patient.(38) It remains to be determined whether any of these strategies will successfully reverse or arrest neurodegeneration in this disorder.”
BackgroundFerroptosis as a Major Factor and Therapeutic Target for Neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s Disease
Ko, C.-J., Gao, S.-L., Lin, T.-K., Chu, P.-Y., & Lin, H.-Y. (2021) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines9111679 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Two phase 1 trials reported that NAC administration boosted GSH redox ratios, brain GSH, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) NAC concentrations [44,45].”
BackgroundGaucher disease – more than just a rare lipid storage disease
Roh, J., Subramanian, S., Weinreb, N. J., & Kartha, R. V. (2022) · Journal of Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1007/s00109-021-02174-z · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Intravenous injection of NAC in patients with PD, GD, and healthy subjects increased levels of blood GSH redox ratio and brain GSH concentrations [229] but the oral administration of NAC in patients with PD was less effective [230].”
BackgroundJoshi, A. U., Kornfeld, O. S., & Mochly‐Rosen, D. (2016) · Cell Calcium · doi:10.1016/j.ceca.2016.04.010 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Targeting Ferroptosis in Parkinson’s Disease: Mechanisms and Emerging Therapeutic Strategies
Zhou, M., Xu, K., Ge, J., Luo, X., Wu, M., Wang, N., & Zeng, J. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms252313042 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Additionally, DJ-1, a regulatory factor in the trans-sulfuration pathway, promotes the dissociation of the Keap1/Nrf2 complex, enhancing Nrf2 expression and downstream gene activity.”
Benassi, B., Filomeni, G., Montagna, C., Merla, C., Lopresto, V., Pinto, R., Marino, C., & Consales, C. (2015) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-015-9354-4 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Accordingly, NAC administration has been tested in animal models and clinical trials of PD [53, 54], and BSO has been already reported to significantly amplify in vivo (namely in nigral neurons) the toxic effects induced by MPTP [55].”
Moss, H. G., Brown, T. R., Wiest, D. B., & Jenkins, D. (2018) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1177/0271678x18765828 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Lesh, T. A., Maddock, R. J., Howell, A. M., Wang, H., Tanase, C., Ragland, J. D., Niendam, T. A., & Carter, C. S. (2019) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-019-0428-y · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Zhou, J., Coles, L. D., Kartha, R. V., Nash, N., Mishra, U., Lund, T. C., & Cloyd, J. C. (2015) · Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences · doi:10.1002/jps.24482 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationGeng, Y., Zhang, H., Zhang, G., Zhou, J., Zhu, M., Ma, L., Wang, X., James, T. D., & Wang, Z. (2023) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.3c01447 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Li, H., Zeng, F., Huang, C., Pu, Q., Thomas, E. R., Chen, Y., & Li, X. (2023) · CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/cns.14411 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Reyes, R. C., Cittolin‐Santos, G. F., Kim, J.-E., Won, S. J., Brennan, A., Katz, M., Glass, G. A., & Swanson, R. A. (2015) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-015-0404-4 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“because it is at the upper end of published clinical trials [15, 16].”
BackgroundMorris, G., Walder, K. R., Berk, M., Marx, W., Walker, A. J., Maes, M. H. J., & Puri, B. K. (2020) · Molecular Biology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11033-020-05590-5 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Pradhan, P., Majhi, O., Biswas, A., Joshi, V. K., & Sinha, D. (2020) · Cell Death & Disease · doi:10.1038/s41419-020-02942-8 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Glutathione and glutathione disulfide – their biomedical and pharmaceutical applications
Guan, X. (2023) · Medicinal Chemistry Research · doi:10.1007/s00044-023-03116-9 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Administration of NAC by IV has been shown to increase brain GSH levels by 55% in patients with PD [3, 8].”
BackgroundDJ-1 as a Biomarker of Parkinson’s Disease
Saito, Y. (2017) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-6583-5_10 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Alpha synuclein post translational modifications: potential targets for Parkinson’s disease therapy?
Brembati, V., Faustini, G., Longhena, F., & Bellucci, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2023.1197853 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Delgobo, M., Agnes, J. P., Gonçalves, R. M., dos Santos, V. W., Parisotto, E. B., Zamoner, A., & Zanotto‐Filho, A. (2019) · The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2019.02.012 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Jiang, X., Wu, K., Ye, X., Xie, T., Zhang, P., Blass, B. E., & Bai, R. (2023) · Medicinal Research Reviews · doi:10.1002/med.21939 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
N -Acetylcysteine for Nonsuicidal Self-Injurious Behavior in Adolescents: An Open-Label Pilot Study
Cullen, K. R., Klimes‐Dougan, B., Schreiner, M. W., Carstedt, P. A., Marka, N. A., Nelson, K. J., Miller, M. J., Reigstad, K. M., Westervelt, A., Gunlicks‐Stoessel, M., et al. (2017) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1089/cap.2017.0032 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Human research has shown that NAC crosses the blood-brain barrier (Katz et al. 2015) and acutely increases blood and brain GSH concentrations (Holmay et al. 2013).”
BackgroundBrancaccio, M., Mennitti, C., Cesaro, A., Fimiani, F., Moscarella, E., Caiazza, M., Gragnano, F., Ranieri, A., D’Alicandro, G., Tinto, N., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17249424 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Mitochondria-Targeted Antioxidant Therapeutics for Traumatic Brain Injury
Modi, H. R., Musyaju, S., Ratcliffe, M., Shear, D. A., Scultetus, A. H., & Pandya, J. D. (2024) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox13030303 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“In keeping with this, NAC and its analogs, such as the cysteine supplement, are effective at raising levels of glutathione in various neurological diseases and injuries, preclinically and clinically [126–129].”
BackgroundReinforcing mitochondrial functions in aging brain: An insight into Parkinson's disease therapeutics
Chandra, G., Shenoi, R. A., Anand, R., Rajamma, U., & Mohanakumar, K. P. (2017) · Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy · doi:10.1016/j.jchemneu.2017.12.004 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
N-Acetyl-l-Cysteine Protects Astrocytes against Proteotoxicity without Recourse to Glutathione
Gleixner, A. M., Hutchison, D. F., Sannino, S., Bhatia, T. N., Leak, L. C., Flaherty, P. T., Wipf, P., Brodsky, J. L., & Leak, R. K. (2017) · Molecular Pharmacology · doi:10.1124/mol.117.109926 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“motor deficits and dopamine transporter binding in this condition (Holmay et al., 2013; Katz et al., 2015; Martinez-Banaclocha, 2012; Monti et al., 2016; Reyes et al., 2016).”
Lee, C., Su, C.-H., Tsai, P., Yang, M., Ho, Y., Lee, S., Chen, C., Chen, W., Lin, M., Chen, C., et al. (2018) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2018.09.054 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Leathem, A., Ortíz, T., Dennis, J. M., & Witting, P. K. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23136923 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Similarly, intravenous infusion of NAC increases both brain GSH concentration and blood glutathione redox ratio in PD patients as well as healthy controls, although this effect is, as expected, more pronounced in the PD patient group [82].”
BackgroundMarkoutsa, E., & Xu, P. (2017) · Molecular Pharmaceutics · doi:10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b01028 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Magnetic resonance imaging as a potential biomarker for Parkinson's disease
Tuite, P. (2015) · Translational research · doi:10.1016/j.trsl.2015.12.006 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“dose of NAC increased blood Gln redox levels by 200%–1000%, which were followed by 30% increases in brain Gln concentrations (Fig 1).(146) To follow up on this work and to move to a more practical repeated oral NAC dose regimen for patient studies, we conducted a 4 week oral NAC dose study in PD and control subjects a…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationThe use of magnetic resonance spectroscopy for assessing the effect of diet on cognition
Scavuzzo, C. J., Moulton, C. J., & Larsen, R. J. (2016) · Nutritional Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/1028415x.2016.1218191 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
New Therapeutics to Modulate Mitochondrial Function in Neurodegenerative Disorders
Wilkins, H., & Morris, J. K. (2017) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/1381612822666161230144517 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) as a Potential Biomarker for Parkinson’s Disease (PD)
Tuite, P. (2017) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci7060068 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“NAC study showed initial blood (200%–1000%) and then brain (~30%) increases in GSH concentrations [116].”
BackgroundSelf-citationMonti, D., Zabrecky, G. P., Leist, T. P., Wintering, N., Bazzan, A. J., Zhan, T., & Newberg, A. B. (2020) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.00088 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“In addition, one MRS study suggested that there was an increase in brain glutathione levels in patients receiving an intravenous but not oral dose of NAC (13).”
BackgroundInfluentialPoletti, S., Paolini, M., Mazza, M. G., Palladini, M., Furlan, R., Rovere, P. Q., & Benedetti, F. (2022) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2022.06.008 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Deelchand, D. K., Marjańska, M., Hodges, J. S., & Terpstra, M. (2016) · NMR in Biomedicine · doi:10.1002/nbm.3507 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationLower Posterior Cingulate Cortex Glutathione Levels in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Brennan, B. P., Jensen, J. E., Perriello, C., Pope, H. G., Jenike, M. A., Hudson, J. I., Rauch, S. L., & Kaufman, M. J. (2015) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2015.12.003 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“One (73) found no change in individuals with depression following a sixweek course of treatment with the SSRI escitalopram and the other (80) demonstrated an acute GSH increase following intravenous NAC administration in individuals with Gaucher and Parkinson’s diseases.”
BackgroundOxidative damage and redox in Lysosomal Storage Disorders: Biochemical markers
Donida, B., Jacques, C. E. D., Mescka, C. P., Rodrigues, D. G. B., Marchetti, D. P., Ribas, G. S., Giugliani, R., & Vargas, C. R. (2017) · Clinica Chimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.cca.2017.01.007 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Yi, L., Tan, E. K., & Zhou, Z. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25094643 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“A multi-drug combination therapy including TH inhibitors should be further explored in clinical trials in PD patients.”
BackgroundGoldstein, D. S., Jinsmaa, Y., Sullivan, P., & Sharabi, Y. (2017) · Neurochemical Research · doi:10.1007/s11064-017-2371-0 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“NAC has acceptable bioavailability [22, 23], and in humans NAC increases brain glutathione content [24].”
BackgroundLowe, D. W., Fraser, J. L., Rollins, L. G., Bentzley, J. P., Nie, X., Martin, R. H., Singh, I., & Jenkins, D. (2017) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.06.004 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“NAC rapidly crosses the blood brain barrier and mitigates oxidative stress by directly scavenging oxygen free radicals and supplying cysteine, the ratelimiting substrate in synthesis of glutathione, a m jor intracellular antioxidant [8, 9].”
Benvenutti, R., Marcon, M., Reis, C. G., Nery, L. R., Miguel, C., Herrmann, A. P., Vianna, M. R. M. R., & Piato, Â. (2018) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.4957 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Segura‐Aguilar, J., & Mannervik, B. (2023) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox12030673 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“to increase the GSH concentration in the brain [8,90].”
BackgroundN-Acetyl cysteine prevents synergistic, severe toxicity from two hits of oxidative stress
Unnithan, A. S., Jiang, Y., Rumble, J. L., Pulugulla, S. H., Posimo, J. M., Gleixner, A. M., & Leak, R. K. (2013) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2013.12.023 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Zhang, Y., Cui, W., Zhai, Q., Zhang, T., & Wen, X. (2017) · Molecular Medicine Reports · doi:10.3892/mmr.2017.6787 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“NAC has been reported to cross the blood brain barrier (10,11), decrease oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokine production, replenish GSH levels, and thus ameliorate autism-associated irritability, including self-injurious behavior (12).”
Vieira, G. D. L. T., Lossie, A. C., Lay, D. C., Jr., Radcliffe, J. S., & Garner, J. P. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0175222 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Girgis, R. R., Baker, S. C., Mao, X., Gil, R. B., Javitt, D. C., Kantrowitz, J. T., Gu, M., Spielman, D. M., Ojeil, N., Xu, X., et al. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.03.018 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“However, a study in Parkinson and Gaucher diseases reported GSH elevations in response to a single intravenous dose of NAC (Holmay et al., 2013), likely due to the generally higher bioavailability of intravenously administered NAC.”
BackgroundMethodVirel, A., Dudka, I., Laterveer, R., & af Bjerkén, S. (2019) · Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.mcn.2019.06.003 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Inflammation, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, and Related Disorders
Meyer, J. H. (2021) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2020_210 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The Multiple Sclerosis Modulatory Potential of Natural Multi-Targeting Antioxidants
Theodosis‐Nobelos, P., & Rekka, E. A. (2022) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules27238402 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is a very well-established antioxidant, GSH precursor, increasing GSH in brain [112].”
Background
- Authors
- Holmay, M. J., Terpstra, M., Coles, L. D., Mishra, U., Ahlskog, M., Öz, G., Cloyd, J. C., & Tuite, P. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Cornell University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Holmay, Mary J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Clinical Neuropharmacology
- Published
- 2013-07
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 103-106
- ISSN
- 0362-5664 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3934795
- OpenAlex
- W2010686114
- Cited by
- 216
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 8.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Clinical Neuropharmacology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (U54NS065768, P30NS076408)
- National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (P41EB015894)
- National Center for Research Resources (S10RR026783, P41RR008079)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Parkinson's Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biochemistry › Sulfur Compounds in Biology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Lysosomal Storage Disorders Research
- Keywords
- N-acetylcysteine, glutathione, Parkinson's disease, Gaucher disease, brain glutathione, antioxidant therapy, redox state, neurodegenerative diseases
- MeSH terms
- Acetylcysteine, Adolescent, Antioxidants, Antiparkinson Agents, Brain, Female, Gaucher Disease, Glutathione, Humans, Infusions, Intravenous, Kinetics, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Middle Aged, Neurons, Oxidation-Reduction, Parkinson Disease, Up-Regulation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
