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Wireless Communications and Applications Above 100 GHz: Opportunities and Challenges for 6G and Beyond
Open accessAbstract
Frequencies from 100 GHz to 3 THz are promising bands for the next generation of wireless communication systems because of the wide swaths of unused and unexplored spectrum. These frequencies also offer the potential for revolutionary applications that will be made possible by new thinking, and advances in devices, circuits, software, signal processing, and systems. This paper describes many of the technical challenges and opportunities for wireless communication and sensing applications above 100 GHz, and presents a number of promising discoveries, novel approaches, and recent results that will aid in the development and implementation of the sixth generation (6G) of wireless networks, and beyond. This paper shows recent regulatory and standard body rulings that are anticipating wireless products and services above 100 GHz and illustrates the viability of wireless cognition, hyper-accurate position location, sensing, and imaging. This paper also presents approaches and results that show how long distance mobile communications will be supported to above 800 GHz since the antenna gains are able to overcome air-induced attenuation, and present methods that reduce the computational complexity and simplify the signal processing used in adaptive antenna arrays, by exploiting the Special Theory of Relativity to create a cone of silence in over-sampled antenna arrays that improve performance for digital phased array antennas. Also, new results that give insights into power efficient beam steering algorithms, and new propagation and partition loss models above 100 GHz are given, and promising imaging, array processing, and position location results are presented. The implementation of spatial consistency at THz frequencies, an important component of channel modeling that considers minute changes and correlations over space, is also discussed. This paper offers the first in-depth look at the vast applications of THz wireless products and applications and provides approaches for how to reduce power and increase performance across several problem domains, giving early evidence that THz techniques are compelling and available for future wireless communications.
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“Bandwidth expansion from the millimetre-wave regime to the THz regime also causes uncertain biological impacts on humans and animals.”
From What should 6G be? (2020) · cites this paper as [26]
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BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationNon-Stationary Channel Estimation for Extremely Large-Scale MIMO
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BackgroundInfluentialTowards Real-World 6G Drone Communication: Position and Camera Aided Beam Prediction
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BackgroundTransition technologies towards 6G networks
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“Rappaport et al. [16] outlined wireless communication and sensing applications above 100 GHz, which aids in the development of 6G technology.”
BackgroundDeep Learning for THz Drones with Flying Intelligent Surfaces: Beam and Handoff Prediction
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InfluentialSelf-citationA perspective on 6G: Requirement, technology, enablers, challenges and future road map
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“Most of the information comes through the sensory organs: the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin [28, 72].”
BackgroundMetasurface-Aided Wireless Power Transfer and Energy Harvesting for Future Wireless Networks
Ojukwu, H., Seet, B., & Rehman, S. U. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3170106 · Cited by 60
“and Terahertz frequency bands where signals would experience high propagation loss [50].”
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6G for intelligent transportation systems: standards, technologies, and challenges
Jha, A. V., Appasani, B., Khan, M. S., Zeadally, S., & Katib, I. A. (2024) · Telecommunication Systems · doi:10.1007/s11235-024-01126-5 · Cited by 60
“Spectrum allocation, for instance, becomes a critical consideration because the introduction of 6G requires the identification and allocation of suitable frequency bands to accommodate its high data rates and massive connectivity [8].”
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“The mmWave experience so far in 5G does not lend optimism to use of the THz bands—loosely meaning spectrum above 100 GHz [22]—for terrestrial cellular deployments in the near future.”
Channel Characterization and Capacity Analysis for THz Communication Enabled Smart Rail Mobility
Guan, K., He, D., Ai, B., Chen, Y., Han, C. Z., Peng, B., Zhong, Z. D., & Kürner, T. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2021.3071242 · Cited by 59
“where the available spectrum is massively abundant [7]–[9].”
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“With unprecedented multi-GHz bandwidth, the Terahertz (THz) band has drawn increasing attention to support 100+ Gbps wireless data rates [2].”
BackgroundA Computationally Efficient EK-PMBM Filter for Bistatic mmWave Radio SLAM
Ge, Y., Kaltiokallio, O., Kim, H., Jiang, F., Talvitie, J., Valkama, M., Svensson, L., Kim, S., & Wymeersch, H. (2022) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/jsac.2022.3155504 · Cited by 62
“The VA is the reflection of the BS with respect to the reflecting surface [35], [36]”
BackgroundBlockage Prediction Using Wireless Signatures: Deep Learning Enables Real-World Demonstration
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When Wireless Communications Meet Computer Vision in Beyond 5G
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BackgroundSingle- Versus Multicarrier Terahertz-Band Communications: A Comparative Study
Tarboush, S., Sarieddeen, H., Alouini, M., & Al-Naffouri, T. Y. (2022) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2022.3201038 · Cited by 58
“Furthermore, accurate localization, sensing, and imaging applications are promised in the THz band [7], [8].”
BackgroundFluid Antenna System—Part II: Research Opportunities
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“quantities of spectrum and capacity [11].”
Near-Field Beam Training Based on Deep Learning for Extremely Large-Scale MIMO
Jiang, G., & Qi, C. (2023) · IEEE Communications Letters · doi:10.1109/lcomm.2023.3289513 · Cited by 58
“F OR the sixth generation (6G) wireless communications, the extremely large-scale multiple-input multiple-output (XL-MIMO) with much more antennas than massive MIMO in the fifth generation (5G) wireless communications has been considered as a key enabling technology [1], [2].”
BackgroundDeep Unfolding Hybrid Beamforming Designs for THz Massive MIMO Systems
Nguyen, N. T., Ma, M., Lavi, O., Shlezinger, N., Eldar, Y. C., Swindlehurst, A. L., & Juntti, M. J. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/tsp.2023.3322852 · Cited by 58
“To realize such rapid growth in data traffic and applications, wide-band terahertz (THz) massive multiple-input multiple-output (mMIMO) systems have emerged as key enablers for achieving substantial improvements in the system spectral and energy efficiency (SE/EE) [2].”
BackgroundZhang, S., Zhu, D., & Liu, Y. (2024) · Computer Networks · doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2024.110255 · Cited by 60
Cross Far- and Near-Field Wireless Communications in Terahertz Ultra-Large Antenna Array Systems
Han, C. Z., Chen, Y., Yan, L., Chen, Z., & Dai, L. (2024) · IEEE Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/mwc.003.2300004 · Cited by 58
“1 to 10 THz and possesses abundant continuous bandwidth over tens of GHz, is regarded as a pillar technology to meet the terabits per second (Tbps) data rates for 6G communication systems [1].”
BackgroundComputer Vision Aided Beam Tracking in A Real-World Millimeter Wave Deployment
Jiang, S., & Alkhateeb, A. (2022) · IEEE Globecom Workshops (GC Wkshps) · doi:10.1109/gcwkshps56602.2022.10008648 · Cited by 57
“Therefore, the input to the encoder is {X[1], .”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationEvolution of wireless communication networks: from 1G to 6G and future perspective
Solyman, A., & Yahya, K. A. (2022) · International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems/International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering · doi:10.11591/ijece.v12i4.pp3943-3950 · Cited by 57
Joint Communications and Sensing Hybrid Beamforming Design via Deep Unfolding
Nguyen, N. T., Nguyen, L. V., Shlezinger, N., Eldar, Y. C., Swindlehurst, A. L., & Juntti, M. J. (2024) · IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/jstsp.2024.3463403 · Cited by 57
“Y. C. Eldar is with Faculty of Math and CS, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel (email: yonina.eldar@weizmann.ac.il). been explored in this context [3], [4].”
BackgroundMitigating Quantization Lobes in mmWave Low-Bit Reconfigurable Reflective Surfaces
Kashyap, B. G., Theofanopoulos, P. C., Cui, Y., & Trichopoulos, G. C. (2020) · IEEE Open Journal of Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/ojap.2020.3034049 · Cited by 57
“As such, numerous mmWave/THz applications have been developed in these frequencies, including wireless communications, radar imaging, remote sensing, and space exploration [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6].”
BackgroundSelf-citationMillimeter-Wave and Terahertz Fixed Wireless Link Budget Evaluation for Extreme Weather Conditions
Weng, Z.-K., Kanno, A., Dat, P. T., Inagaki, K., Tanabe, K., Sasaki, E., Kürner, T., Jung, B. K., & Kawanishi, T. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3132097 · Cited by 56
Xu, C., An, J., Bai, T., Xiang, L., Sugiura, S., Maunder, R. G., Yang, L., & Hanzo, L. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2022.3147859 · Cited by 57
“More details on these relationships can be found in [40], [52], [53].”
A Survey on Goal-Oriented Semantic Communication: Techniques, Challenges, and Future Directions
Getu, T. M., Kaddoum, G., & Bennis, M. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3381967 · Cited by 71
Haloui, D., Oufaska, K., Oudani, M., & Yassini, K. E. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16093507 · Cited by 61
“With 5G New Radio (NR), the fifth generation of wireless communication systems, users can take advantage of extremely high transfer rates as well as dependable, low-latency services [153,154].”
BackgroundChannel Measurement and Analysis in an Indoor Corridor Scenario at 300 GHz
Li, Y., Wang, Y., Chen, Y., Yu, Z., & Han, C. Z. (2022) · International Conference on Communications · doi:10.1109/icc45855.2022.9839013 · Cited by 55
Making Sense of Meaning: A Survey on Metrics for Semantic and Goal-Oriented Communication
Getu, T. M., Kaddoum, G., & Bennis, M. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3269848 · Cited by 69
“[10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26] regarding the next generation of wireless communication systems – commonly known as the sixth-generation (6G).”
Ju, S., Shakya, D., Poddar, H., Xing, Y., Kanhere, O., & Rappaport, T. S. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2023.3337601 · Cited by 61
“…which offer wider bandwidths than conventional wireless systems, has proven promising due to their spectrum availability and millimeter-level wavelengths, enabling ultra-broadband communications and steerable pencil beams generated by large antenna arrays with a massive number of elements [1].”
BackgroundSelf-citationMaterial advancement in technological development for the 5G wireless communications
Hao, H., Hui, D., & Lau, D. (2020) · Nanotechnology Reviews · doi:10.1515/ntrev-2020-0054 · Cited by 55
“[182] Rappaport TS, Xing Y, Kanhere O, Ju S, Madanayake A,”
BackgroundReview of THz-based semiconductor assurance
True, J., Xi, C., Jessurun, N., Ahi, K., & Asadizanjani, N. (2021) · Optical Engineering · doi:10.1117/1.oe.60.6.060901 · Cited by 57
“(a) Most surfaces appear smooth at microwave frequencies (specular scattering), (b) same surfaces exhibit significant considerable roughness in optical spectrum (diffuse scattering), (c) in THz regime most building surfaces exhibit significant diffuse scattering and strong specular reflections.(90) Copyright © 2014 IE…”
BackgroundSimultaneously Transmitting and Reflecting Surface (STARS) for Terahertz Communications
Wang, Z., Mu, X., Xu, J., & Liu, Y. (2023) · IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/jstsp.2023.3279621 · Cited by 54
“Then, the corresponding delay-q baseband channel h i,j,k [ q ] ∈ C 1 × N , ∀ k ∈ K χ , is given by [31], [32], [33] where Θ χ = diag ([ β χ, 1 e jϕ χ, 1 , . . . , β χ,M e jϕ χ,M ] T ) , ∀ χ ∈{ t, r } , denotes the transmission/reflection coefficient matrix of the STARS, a ( f, ψ, ϑ ) denotes the…”
LEO Satellite Constellation for Global-Scale Remote Sensing With On-Orbit Cloud AI Computing
Li, Y., Wang, M., Hwang, K., Li, Z., & Ji, T. (2023) · IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing · doi:10.1109/jstars.2023.3316298 · Cited by 54
“With the support of edge intelligence [24], space-air-ground-underwater communications [25], tera-hertz communications [26], etc., IoT becomes a more intelligent network to connect millions of heterogeneous devices.”
BackgroundA Survey on Blockchain for Dynamic Spectrum Sharing
Perera, L., Ranaweera, P. S., Kusaladharma, S., Wang, S., & Liyanage, M. (2024) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2024.3376233 · Cited by 54
“The rigidity of static architectures hampers their ability to support applications with higher data rates and low latency requirements [3], [4].”
BackgroundThe Channel as a Traffic Sensor: Vehicle Detection and Classification Based on Radio Fingerprinting
Sliwa, B., Piatkowski, N., & Wietfeld, C. (2020) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2020.2983207 · Cited by 55
“They are robust against challenging weather conditions as the signal propagation in the considered frequency band is hardly impacted by rain and snowfall [53], [54].”
BackgroundYong, W. Y., Vosoogh, A., Bagheri, A., van de Ven, C., Hadaddi, A., & Glazunov, A. A. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3293739 · Cited by 53
“communication engineers [1], [2], there is a need to devise radio frequency front-end (RFFE) systems that perform well at these frequency bands by the microwave and antenna engineers.”
BackgroundPatil, A., Iyer, S., López, O. L. A., Pandya, R. J., Pai, K., Kalla, A., & Kallimani, R. (2024) · Computer Networks · doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2024.110697 · Cited by 61
Guo, X., Zhang, Z., Ren, Z., Li, D., Xu, C., Wang, L., Liu, W., Zhuge, Y., Zhou, G., & Lee, C. (2025) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202510417 · Cited by 57
High Altitude Platform Stations (HAPS): Architecture and System Performance
Xing, Y., Hsieh, F., Ghosh, A., & Rappaport, T. S. (2021) · IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference · doi:10.1109/vtc2021-spring51267.2021.9448899 · Cited by 52
Self-citationAlimi, I. A., Patel, R. K., Muga, N. J., Pinto, A. N., Teixeira, A., & Monteiro, P. P. (2021) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app112110427 · Cited by 52
Zhang, R., Chen, G., Cheng, L., Guan, X., Wu, Q., Wu, W., & Zhang, R. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2025.3551144 · Cited by 52
“To accommodate these applications, extremely large-scale multiple-input multiple-output (XL-MIMO), as a direct evolution of massive MIMO, has been recognized as a potential solution for achieving ultra-high communication rate with a 10-fold increase in spectral efficiency [5], [6], [7].”
Integrated Solutions for Deployment of 6G Mobile Networks
Sizer, T., Samardžija, D., Viswanathan, H., Le, S. T., Bidkar, S., Dom, P., Harstead, E., & Pfeiffer, T. (2021) · Journal of Lightwave Technology · doi:10.1109/jlt.2021.3110436 · Cited by 52
Beam Training and Alignment for RIS-Assisted Millimeter-Wave Systems: State of the Art and Beyond
Wang, P., Fang, J., Zhang, W., Chen, Z., Li, H., & Zhang, W. (2022) · IEEE Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/mwc.006.2100517 · Cited by 51
Li, H., Chen, J., Hou, D., Li, Z., Zhou, R., Chen, Z., Yan, P., & Hong, W. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2022.3188917 · Cited by 51
“For beyond fifth-generation or sixth-generation communication, data rate on the order of tens or even hundreds of gigabits per second (Gb/s) is required which is not feasible using currently known systems in the microwave or low mm-wave frequency band [17].”
MethodA Biomedical Perspective in Terahertz Nano-Communications—A Review
Yin, X., Baghai-Wadji, A. R., & Zhang, Y. (2022) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2022.3161013 · Cited by 51
“will strongly support the anti-interference of THz communications [22], [23].”
BackgroundDesign of D-Band Transformer-Based Gain-Boosting Class-AB Power Amplifiers in Silicon Technologies
Tang, X., Nguyen, J., Medra, A., Khalaf, K., Visweswaran, A., Debaillie, B., & Wambacq, P. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2020.2974197 · Cited by 51
“The D band is expected to be the first commercially used THz frequency band for future communication systems [4], [5].”
BackgroundGratingless integrated tunneling multiplexer for terahertz waves
Headland, D. J., Withayachumnankul, W., Fujita, M., & Nagatsuma, T. (2021) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.420715 · Cited by 51
Yi, C., Kim, D., Solanki, S., Kwon, J., Kim, M., Jeon, S., Ko, Y., & Lee, I. (2021) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/jsac.2021.3071849 · Cited by 51
“Nevertheless, to obtain the data rate of over 100 Gbps, it is required to achieve the spectral efficiency of at least 12 bps/Hz which is extremely difficult to realize in the mmWave band using the conventional transceiver architectures [4].”
BackgroundWideband Millimeter-Wave Beam Training with True-Time-Delay Array Architecture
Yan, H., Boljanovic, V., & Cabric, D. (2019) · Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers (ACSSC) · doi:10.1109/ieeeconf44664.2019.9048885 · Cited by 50
“The challenge of overhead becomes more severe in the future mmW and sub-terahertz systems where the array size is expected to further increase due to carrier frequency increase [3].”
BackgroundWideband channel estimation for THz massive MIMO
Tan, J., & Dai, L. (2021) · China Communications · doi:10.23919/jcc.2021.05.005 · Cited by 50
“1 − 10 THz [1]), massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), which can generate directional beams by a large-scale antenna array, is essential for THz communication[4].”
Liang, Y., Lu, C., Zhao, Y., & Sun, C. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3091802 · Cited by 50
Paul, B., Sertel, K., & Nahar, N. K. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3188992 · Cited by 50
Ghildiyal, Y., Singh, R., Alkhayyat, A. H., Gehlot, A., Malik, P. K., Sharma, R., Akram, S. V., & Alkwai, L. M. (2023) · Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments · doi:10.1016/j.seta.2023.103047 · Cited by 51
A Review of Wireless Positioning Techniques and Technologies: From Smart Sensors to 6G
Isaia, C., & Michaelides, M. P. (2023) · Signals · doi:10.3390/signals4010006 · Cited by 50
“The sensing applications include air quality monitoring, gesture recognition, explosives’ detection, and gas sensing, as well as centimeter-level positioning [134].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCross-Field Channel Estimation for Ultra Massive-MIMO THz Systems
Tarboush, S., Ali, A., & Al-Naffouri, T. Y. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2024.3352894 · Cited by 50
“The main contributions of this work are • Formulating and solving the cross-field channel estimation problem.”
BackgroundVision-Aided Dynamic Blockage Prediction for 6G Wireless Communication Networks
Charan, G., Alrabeiah, M., & Alkhateeb, A. (2021) · IEEE International Conference on Communications workshops · doi:10.1109/iccworkshops50388.2021.9473651 · Cited by 50
“Millimeter-wave (mmWave) and sub-terahertz communications are becoming the dominant directions for modern and future wireless networks [1], [2].”
BackgroundSelf-citationB5G and 6G: Next Generation Wireless Communications Technologies, Demand and Challenges
Kadir, E. A., Shubair, R. M., Rahim, S. K. A., Himdi, M., Kamarudin, M. R., & Rosa, S. L. (2021) · International Congress of Advanced Technology and Engineering (ICOTEN) · doi:10.1109/icoten52080.2021.9493470 · Cited by 49
Coexistence and Spectrum Sharing Above 100 GHz
Polese, M., Cantos-Roman, X., Singh, A., Marcus, M. J., Maccarone, T. J., Melodia, T., & Jornet, J. M. (2023) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2023.3286172 · Cited by 49
“Several early papers on 6G communication technologies have highlighted how the spectrum above 100 GHz could be a fundamental enabler of ultrahigh-capacity wireless networks [16], [27], [43].”
BackgroundLiDAR-Aided Mobile Blockage Prediction in Real-World Millimeter Wave Systems
Wu, S., Chakrabarti, C., & Alkhateeb, A. (2022) · IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference · doi:10.1109/wcnc51071.2022.9771651 · Cited by 50
“Millimeter wave (mmWave) and sub-terahertz (sub-THz) communication systems have the potential of providing high data rates thanks to the large bandwidth available at these frequency bands [1], [2].”
BackgroundSelf-citationHuo, Y., Dong, X., & Ferdinand, N. S. (2022) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2022.3214471 · Cited by 49
“Moreover, in a report summarizing the channel measurements campaign by researchers from NYU [1], cross-polarization discrimination (XPD) and partition loss measurements at 28, 73, and 140 GHz for common indoor building materials.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Rappaport, T. S., Xing, Y., Kanhere, O., Ju, S., Madanayake, A., Mandal, S., Alkhateeb, A., & Trichopoulos, G. C.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Florida International University (US)
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Arizona State University (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- IEEE Access
- Published
- 2019
- Volume
- 7
- Pages
- 78729-78757
- ISSN
- 2169-3536 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2955897898
- Cited by
- 2,617
- References
- 155
- Citations by year
- 2026: 333 · 2025: 448 · 2024: 412 · 2023: 422 · 2022: 406 · 2021: 356 · 2020: 214 · 2019: 26
- FWCI
- 90.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- IEEE Access (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1702967, 1731290, 1902283, 1711395, 1854798, 1730946)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Antenna Design and Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Terahertz technology and applications
- Keywords
- terahertz communication, 6G, wireless sensing, wireless imaging, position location, smart antennas, beam steering, propagation models, channel modeling, spatial consistency, power efficiency, spectrum regulation
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