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Wireless Communications and Applications Above 100 GHz: Opportunities and Challenges for 6G and Beyond
Open accessAbstract
Frequencies from 100 GHz to 3 THz are promising bands for the next generation of wireless communication systems because of the wide swaths of unused and unexplored spectrum. These frequencies also offer the potential for revolutionary applications that will be made possible by new thinking, and advances in devices, circuits, software, signal processing, and systems. This paper describes many of the technical challenges and opportunities for wireless communication and sensing applications above 100 GHz, and presents a number of promising discoveries, novel approaches, and recent results that will aid in the development and implementation of the sixth generation (6G) of wireless networks, and beyond. This paper shows recent regulatory and standard body rulings that are anticipating wireless products and services above 100 GHz and illustrates the viability of wireless cognition, hyper-accurate position location, sensing, and imaging. This paper also presents approaches and results that show how long distance mobile communications will be supported to above 800 GHz since the antenna gains are able to overcome air-induced attenuation, and present methods that reduce the computational complexity and simplify the signal processing used in adaptive antenna arrays, by exploiting the Special Theory of Relativity to create a cone of silence in over-sampled antenna arrays that improve performance for digital phased array antennas. Also, new results that give insights into power efficient beam steering algorithms, and new propagation and partition loss models above 100 GHz are given, and promising imaging, array processing, and position location results are presented. The implementation of spatial consistency at THz frequencies, an important component of channel modeling that considers minute changes and correlations over space, is also discussed. This paper offers the first in-depth look at the vast applications of THz wireless products and applications and provides approaches for how to reduce power and increase performance across several problem domains, giving early evidence that THz techniques are compelling and available for future wireless communications.
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“Bandwidth expansion from the millimetre-wave regime to the THz regime also causes uncertain biological impacts on humans and animals.”
From What should 6G be? (2020) · cites this paper as [26]
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“…radio frequency bands, which are defined by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), allow for high-gain beams. is divided As an example, the n257 band (26.5–29.5 GHz) offers high-gain pencil beams that enable high data rates [1,2]. into two regions: sub-teraher tz (sub-THz) (0.1–0.3 THz)…”
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“to be increased toward 100 Gbit/s, demanding high-frequency bands such as the D -band (110–170 GHz) [1], [2].”
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InfluentialOptoelectronic Heterodyne THz Receiver for 100–300 GHz Communication Links
Deumer, M., Stiewe, O., Nellen, S., Lauck, S., Breuer, S., Kohlhaas, R. B., Schubert, C., Elschner, R., Freund, R. E., & Schell, M. A. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3366448 · Cited by 19
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“The only way seen to achieve such data rates is to move to carrier frequencies above 100 GHz [19] making use of the swath of uncharted bandwidth available at THz frequencies (100 GHz-10 THz).”
BackgroundSelf-citationTHz Precoding for 6G: Applications, Challenges, Solutions, and OpportunitiesPreprint
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“To realize the 6G visions above, the peak data rate, which is an important key performance indicator for wireless communications, is expected to be more than 1 Tbps [1], [2].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialYounesi, A., Oustad, E., Ansari, M., Fahringer, T., & Buyya, R. (2025) · Internet of Things · doi:10.1016/j.iot.2025.101815 · Cited by 24
Non-Coaxial OAM: Precoding Design, Misaligned Parameter Estimation and Capacity Compensation
Jian, M., Chen, Y., & Yu, G. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3062946 · Cited by 18
“The exploration of next-generation mobile communication technologies is around the corner [1], [2].”
BackgroundPD-SOI CMOS and SiGe BiCMOS Technologies for 5G and 6G communications
Chevalier, P., Gianesello, F., Pallotta, A., Goncalves, J. A., Bertrand, G., Borrel, J., Boissonnet, L., Brezza, E., Buczko, M., Canderle, E., et al. (2020) · Technical digest - International Electron Devices Meeting/Technical digest · doi:10.1109/iedm13553.2020.9371954 · Cited by 18
“Current 6G preliminary investigations are focusing on the millimeter-wave (mmW) spectrum above 90 GHz [5].”
BackgroundDesign of a Compact RF Front-End Transceiver Module for 5G New-Radio Applications
Wang, Y., Hsu, H., Desai, A., & Tsao, Y. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement · doi:10.1109/tim.2022.3229710 · Cited by 18
“However, the free space path loss at mm-wave frequencies is comparably higher than the one at sub-6-GHz frequencies [2].”
Background159-GHz Propagation Measurement and Analysis in Urban Microcellular Environment for 6G
Lee, J., Park, J.-J., Kim, K., Kim, M.-D., & Kwon, H. (2022) · IEEE Wireless Communications Letters · doi:10.1109/lwc.2022.3223720 · Cited by 18
“FREQUENCIES above 100 GHz, so-called the sub-THz bands, are being considered as potential 6G candidate bands [1] and global regulatory and standardization bodies have already started the discussion of utilizing the sub-THz bands [2].”
BackgroundLi, S., & Wu, C. M. (2023) · IEEE Microwave and Wireless Technology Letters · doi:10.1109/lmwt.2023.3283933 · Cited by 18
“another dimension for 5G development [2].”
Katwe, M. V., Singh, K. K., Li, C., & Ding, Z. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2023.3292599 · Cited by 18
“…driving, brain-computer interface (BCI) systems and others, are expected to bring a new paradigm for core network services w.r.t. high quality of rate, latency, reliability and massive connectivity requirements which are beyond the capabilities of existing network services [1], [2], [3], [4].”
BackgroundAndree, M., Grzyb, J., Heinemann, B., & Pfeiffer, U. R. (2023) · Digest of papers - IEEE Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits Symposium · doi:10.1109/rfic54547.2023.10186116 · Cited by 18
“High gain and large bandwidth (BW) are key features for many applications in the millimeter-wave (mmW) and (sub-) terahertz (THz) frequency range, including the upcoming 6G communications [1], radar systems [2], or radiometry”
BackgroundSingle-Carrier Delay Alignment Modulation for Multi-IRS Aided Communication
Lu, H., Zeng, Y., Jin, S., & Zhang, R. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2023.3306899 · Cited by 18
“…DAM is to exploit the super spatial resolution of large antenna arrays [2], [3] and multi-path channel sparsity of high-frequency channels in e.g., millimeter wave (mmWave) and TeraHertz (THz) communications [4]–[7], for performing delay pre/post-compensation [1], [8] and path-based beam-forming .”
Background6G-IoT Framework for Sustainable Smart City: Vision and Challenges
Mishra, P., & Singh, G. K. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-33354-5_5 · Cited by 18
El‐Absi, M., Abbas, A. A., Tubail, D. A., Ilgac, F. H., Abuelhaija, A., Zantah, Y., Ikki, S., Sezgin, A., & Kaiser, T. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3317892 · Cited by 18
“However, the increased operating frequency required for such real-time data capturing comes at a price of severe path loss, sensitivity to blockages, and limited coverage [15], [16].”
BackgroundScattering from Rough Surfaces in 100+ GHz Wireless Mobile Networks: From Theory to Experiments
Shen, R., & Ghasempour, Y. (2023) · ACM Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking (MobiCom) · doi:10.1145/3570361.3613306 · Cited by 18
“We note that today’s 60 GHz WLANs can support up to 8 GHz of bandwidth [45, 62], and even wider bandwidths are expected in 6G wireless networks [44].”
BackgroundSub-Terahertz Metallic Multibeam Antenna Based on a Sliding Aperture Technique
Lu, H., Zhu, S., Skaik, T. F., Nie, B., Liu, Y., & Wang, Y. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2023.3323894 · Cited by 18
“T ERAHERTZ (THz)/sub-THz technology has been considered a significant potential enabler for the sixth-generation (6G) wireless communications [1], [2].”
BackgroundMillimeter Wave Drones with Cameras: Computer Vision Aided Wireless Beam Prediction
Charan, G., Hredzak, A., & Alkhateeb, A. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Communications workshops · doi:10.1109/iccworkshops57953.2023.10283784 · Cited by 18
“To satisfy the high data rate requirements of these novel application, the drones are expected to be equipped with mmWave/THz transceivers [2].”
BackgroundSelf-citationVision-Aided Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications for Smart Factory
Feng, Y., Gao, F., Tao, X., Ma, S., & Poor, H. V. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2024.3357630 · Cited by 19
“Secondly, traditional pilot training or beam sweeping of large-scale array antennas will involve very significant time overhead and impose serious latency on the network [12], [13].”
BackgroundPerformance analysis of 5G and beyond mixed THz/FSO relaying communication systems
Alimi, I. A., & Monteiro, P. P. (2024) · Optics & Laser Technology · doi:10.1016/j.optlastec.2024.110917 · Cited by 18
Pathak, V., Chethan, R., Pandya, R. J., Iyer, S., & Bhatia, V. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3404473 · Cited by 18
“…THz) are being viewed as a potential band for communication; however, operating at THz frequencies incurs immense path losses, atmospheric absorption, rain attenuation, scattering, penetration losses, and human block-age, resulting in a lower Signal-to-Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR) [7], [13].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCircularly Polarized Series Array and MIMO Application for Sub-Millimeter Wave/Terahertz Band
Nguyen, T. T., Kim, D. H., Choi, J. H., & Jung, C. W. (2024) · Journal of electromagnetic engineering and science · doi:10.26866/jees.2024.3.r.230 · Cited by 18
“…expected to play a significant role in future proposals for establishing wireless links with ultrahigh data rates ( > 100 Gbps), excellent dependability, and capacity for low-latency communications, since this band offers a broad atmospheric transmission window along with controllable losses [1].”
BackgroundContinuous wave THz receivers with rhodium-doped InGaAs enabling 132 dB dynamic range
Deumer, M., Breuer, S., Berrios, S., Keyvaninia, S., Schwanke, G., Schwenson, L. M., Lauck, S., Liebermeister, L., Nellen, S., Schell, M. A., et al. (2024) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.532465 · Cited by 18
A frequency-agile retrodirective tag for large-scale sub-terahertz data backscattering
Kludze, A., Kono, J., Mittleman, D. M., & Ghasempour, Y. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-53035-5 · Cited by 18
“Despite these exciting prospects 19 – 21 , designing and implementing a backscatter sub-THz device that can establish a retro-directive link and operate over a wide bandwidth while drawing low power has remained a key challenge as the state-of-the-art techniques either employ omnidirectional sub-6…”
BackgroundSpatial Frequencies and Degrees of Freedom: Their roles in near-field communications
Kosasih, A., Demir, Ö. T., Kolomvakis, N., & Björnson, E. (2025) · IEEE Signal Processing Magazine · doi:10.1109/msp.2024.3511922 · Cited by 18
D-band Millimeter Wave Generation and Transmission Though Radio-Over-Fiber System
Li, J. L., Zhao, F., & Yu, J. (2020) · IEEE photonics journal · doi:10.1109/jphot.2020.2976505 · Cited by 18
“[11], [14], the D-band mm-wave signals are generated by electronic devices only.”
BackgroundA Terahertz Traveling-Wave Tube Based on Defect Photonic Crystal Waveguide
Bai, N., Xie, Y., Hong, W., & Sun, X. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science · doi:10.1109/tps.2020.2987138 · Cited by 18
“Recently, the output power of the reported single solid-state device amplifier is lower than 1 W at THz range [9].”
BackgroundBoosting 5G mm-Wave IAB Reliability with Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces
Fiore, P., Moro, E., Filippini, I., Capone, A., & Donno, D. D. (2022) · IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference · doi:10.1109/wcnc51071.2022.9771934 · Cited by 18
“Pushed by an increasingly connected society, mobile data demands are undergoing an unprecedented growth phase that cellular networks based on sub-6GHz communications are struggling to keep up with [1].”
BackgroundMetropolis-Hastings Random Walk along the Gradient Descent Direction for MIMO Detection
Gowda, N. M., Krishnamurthy, S. R., & Belogolovy, A. (2021) · International Conference on Communications · doi:10.1109/icc42927.2021.9500309 · Cited by 18
Interdigitated photoconductive terahertz antenna for future wireless communications
Rathinasamy, V., Thipparaju, R. R., Edwin, N. F. B., & Mondal, S. (2021) · Microwave and Optical Technology Letters · doi:10.1002/mop.33034 · Cited by 18
Shi, H. X., Yang, C., & Peng, M. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2024.3422512 · Cited by 17
“Therefore, THz MIMO ISAC is envisioned for various applications in 6G, such as THz localization [6], THz extended reality (XR) [7], Tbps Internet-of-Things (IoT) [8], and THz-assisted vehicle-to-everything (V2X) networks [9].”
MethodA Tutorial on Wideband XL-MIMO: Challenges, Opportunities, and Future Trends
Parvini, M., Banerjee, B., Khan, M. Q., Mewes, T., Nimr, A., & Fettweis, G. P. (2025) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2025.3583091 · Cited by 17
“T HE SIXTH generation (6G) of wireless communications is anticipated to exhibit significant advancements in achievable data rates, end-to-end network latency, and reliability [1], [2], [3].”
Integrated communication and localization in millimeter-wave systems
Yang, J., Xu, J., Li, X., Jin, S., & Gao, B. (2021) · Frontiers of Information Technology & Electronic Engineering · doi:10.1631/fitee.2000505 · Cited by 20
“org/0000-0003-0271-6021 c © Zhejiang University Press 2021 (6G) mobile communication systems (Andrews et al., 2014; Boccardi et al., 2014; Rappaport et al., 2019).”
BackgroundKumazaki, Y., Ozaki, S., Okamoto, N., Hara, N., & Ohki, T. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices · doi:10.1109/ted.2022.3169728 · Cited by 17
Is FFT Fast Enough for Beyond 5G Communications? A Throughput-Complexity Analysis for OFDM Signals
Queiroz, S., Vilela, J. P., & Monteiro, E. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3210519 · Cited by 17
“[7] suggest to give up the “perfect fidelity” of the DFT computation on behalf of (slightly) more error-prone approximation algorithms [9].”
BackgroundParallel generation and coding of a terahertz pulse train
Nkeck, J. E., Béliveau, L.-P., Ropagnol, X., Deslandes, D., Morris, D., & Blanchard, F. (2022) · APL Photonics · doi:10.1063/5.0123697 · Cited by 17
Low-Cost and Low-Profile Sub-Terahertz Luneburg Lens Beamformer on Polymer
Mahmoud, A., Ruiz-García, J., de Sagazan, O., Ettorre, M., Sauleau, R., & González‐Ovejero, D. (2023) · IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters · doi:10.1109/lawp.2023.3243787 · Cited by 17
“SUB-TERAHERTZ (sub-THz) frequencies have been identified as very promising to provide data rates exceeding 100 Gb/s [1] in 6G and beyond wireless systems [2], [3].”
BackgroundHu, Y., Yin, M., Xia, W., Rangan, S., & Mezzavilla, M. (2022) · Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers (ACSSC) · doi:10.1109/ieeeconf56349.2022.10052063 · Cited by 17
“Although our methodology is general, we will demonstrate the methods on two frequencies: f1 = 28GHz, as used in 5G systems today [29], and f2 = 140GHz, a key sub-THz frequency targeted for potential 6G use cases [30], [31].”
MethodJalal, A., Khan, M. I., Qasim, M., & Hu, B. (2023) · Journal of the Optical Society of America A · doi:10.1364/josaa.486473 · Cited by 17
Energy Conservative Data Aggregation for IoT Devices: An Aerial Wake-Up Radio Approach
Khalifa, O., Kouzayha, N., Hussaini, M. A., ElSawy, H., Al-Harthi, N., Elmirghani, J. M. H., Hanif, M., & Al-Naffouri, T. Y. (2023) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2023.3292305 · Cited by 17
“Lately, the electromagnetic spectrum above 28 GHz is getting explored by the research society and by the industry for wireless data communications [60].”
BackgroundEmara, M. K., Kundu, D., MacDonell, K., Rufail, L. M., & Gupta, S. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3333869 · Cited by 17
“Future networks will be required to meet the ever-increasing demand for seamless connectivity with higher capacity, data rates, and reliablilty and lower latency [14], [15].”
BackgroundVallappil, A. K., Rahim, M. K. A., Khawaja, B. A., & Iqbal, M. N. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3351475 · Cited by 17
“Another significant aspect of the 5G wireless systems is the utilization of sub-6GHz and millimeter-wave (mm-Wave) frequency bands [2], [3], [4], [5], [6].”
BackgroundMajeed, A., Jin-ling, Z., Khan, H. A., Ishfaq, M., & Hayat, B. (2024) · Results in Physics · doi:10.1016/j.rinp.2024.107398 · Cited by 17
Vehicle Cameras Guide mm Wave Beams: Approach and Real-World V2V Demonstration
Osman, T., Charan, G., & Alkhateeb, A. (2023) · Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers (ACSSC) · doi:10.1109/ieeeconf59524.2023.10476948 · Cited by 17
“Millimeter wave (mmWave) and terahertz (THz) communications adopt large antenna arrays and use narrow directive beams to guarantee sufficient receive power [1].”
BackgroundSelf-citationDual-Sideband Receiver Enabling 160 Gbps Direct subThz-to-optical Conversion over 1400 m
Blatter, T., Kulmer, L., Vukovic, B., Horst, Y., Destraz, M., Smajić, J., & Leuthold, J. (2024) · Optical Fiber Communication Conference · doi:10.1364/ofc.2024.m2f.2 · Cited by 17
“In contrast to optical free-space links, THz links suffer less from adverse weather conditions [2].”
BackgroundA Core-Shell Lens for Antenna On-Package Integration at D-Band
van Rooijen, N., Alonso‐delPino, M., Bueno, J., Triantafyllos, A. D. B., Sberna, P. M., Spirito, M., & Llombart, N. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2024.3417628 · Cited by 17
“S IXTH-GENERATION wireless network development is showing a great interest toward millimeter-wave frequencies above 100 GHz, where an abundance of unlicensed spectrum is located in several windows with only limited atmospheric absorption [1].”
BackgroundGigahertz and terahertz transistors for 5G, 6G, and beyond mobile communication systems
Liou, J. J., Ziegler, M., & Schwierz, F. (2024) · Applied Physics Reviews · doi:10.1063/5.0213011 · Cited by 17
Aslam, S. Z., Wilcher, A., Chatterjee, B., Yoon, Y., Arnold, D. P., & Sinha, S. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3542771 · Cited by 17
“…ultrahigh-speed-with-low-latency communication (uHSLLC) with data rates greater than 100 Gb/s and latencies as low as 0.1 ms, and ultra-high-data-density (uHDD) classes of communication that can support up to 100 million devices/km 2 [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12].”
InfluentialDeumer, M., Nellen, S., Berrios, S., Breuer, S., Keyvaninia, S., Liebermeister, L., Schell, M., & Kohlhaas, R. B. (2025) · APL Photonics · doi:10.1063/5.0246801 · Cited by 17
Metadata
- Authors
- Rappaport, T. S., Xing, Y., Kanhere, O., Ju, S., Madanayake, A., Mandal, S., Alkhateeb, A., & Trichopoulos, G. C.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Florida International University (US)
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Arizona State University (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- IEEE Access
- Published
- 2019
- Volume
- 7
- Pages
- 78729-78757
- ISSN
- 2169-3536 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2955897898
- Cited by
- 2,617
- References
- 155
- Citations by year
- 2026: 333 · 2025: 448 · 2024: 412 · 2023: 422 · 2022: 406 · 2021: 356 · 2020: 214 · 2019: 26
- FWCI
- 90.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- IEEE Access (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1702967, 1731290, 1902283, 1711395, 1854798, 1730946)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Antenna Design and Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Terahertz technology and applications
- Keywords
- terahertz communication, 6G, wireless sensing, wireless imaging, position location, smart antennas, beam steering, propagation models, channel modeling, spatial consistency, power efficiency, spectrum regulation
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