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Wireless Communications and Applications Above 100 GHz: Opportunities and Challenges for 6G and Beyond
Open accessAbstract
Frequencies from 100 GHz to 3 THz are promising bands for the next generation of wireless communication systems because of the wide swaths of unused and unexplored spectrum. These frequencies also offer the potential for revolutionary applications that will be made possible by new thinking, and advances in devices, circuits, software, signal processing, and systems. This paper describes many of the technical challenges and opportunities for wireless communication and sensing applications above 100 GHz, and presents a number of promising discoveries, novel approaches, and recent results that will aid in the development and implementation of the sixth generation (6G) of wireless networks, and beyond. This paper shows recent regulatory and standard body rulings that are anticipating wireless products and services above 100 GHz and illustrates the viability of wireless cognition, hyper-accurate position location, sensing, and imaging. This paper also presents approaches and results that show how long distance mobile communications will be supported to above 800 GHz since the antenna gains are able to overcome air-induced attenuation, and present methods that reduce the computational complexity and simplify the signal processing used in adaptive antenna arrays, by exploiting the Special Theory of Relativity to create a cone of silence in over-sampled antenna arrays that improve performance for digital phased array antennas. Also, new results that give insights into power efficient beam steering algorithms, and new propagation and partition loss models above 100 GHz are given, and promising imaging, array processing, and position location results are presented. The implementation of spatial consistency at THz frequencies, an important component of channel modeling that considers minute changes and correlations over space, is also discussed. This paper offers the first in-depth look at the vast applications of THz wireless products and applications and provides approaches for how to reduce power and increase performance across several problem domains, giving early evidence that THz techniques are compelling and available for future wireless communications.
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“Bandwidth expansion from the millimetre-wave regime to the THz regime also causes uncertain biological impacts on humans and animals.”
From What should 6G be? (2020) · cites this paper as [26]
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Integrated Sensing and Communications: Toward Dual-Functional Wireless Networks for 6G and Beyond
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“the data traffic in future 6G wireless network, terahertz (THz) communication is considered to be a promising technology due to the tenfold increase in bandwidth it can provide [3]– [8].”
BackgroundImoize, A. L., Adedeji, O., Tandiya, N., & Shetty, S. S. (2021) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s21051709 · Cited by 304
“Therefore, there is a need for hardware to improve the transmission range of THz communication.”
BackgroundInfluentialA Tutorial on Terahertz-Band Localization for 6G Communication Systems
Chen, H., Sarieddeen, H., Ballal, T., Wymeersch, H., Alouini, M., & Al-Naffouri, T. Y. (2022) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2022.3178209 · Cited by 277
Terahertz Massive MIMO With Holographic Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces
Wan, Z., Gao, Z., Gao, F., Renzo, M. D., & Alouini, M. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2021.3064949 · Cited by 276
Beamforming Technologies for Ultra-Massive MIMO in Terahertz Communications
Ning, B., Tian, Z., Mei, W., Chen, Z., Han, C. Z., Li, S., Yuan, J., & Zhang, R. (2023) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2023.3245669 · Cited by 286
“At present, apart from the lower THz frequencies [52], the measurements for about 1 THz is still limited [299], [300].”
BackgroundEnvisioning Device-to-Device Communications in 6G
Zhang, S., Liu, J., Guo, H., Qi, M., & Kato, N. (2020) · IEEE Network · doi:10.1109/mnet.001.1900652 · Cited by 267
“According to [11], smart phone will have computational capabilities that are on the order of the human brain in the near future.”
BackgroundWhite Paper on Broadband Connectivity in 6G
Rajatheva, N., Atzeni, I., Björnson, E., Bourdoux, A., Buzzi, S., Doré, J., Erküçük, S., Fuentes, M., Guan, K., Hu, Y., et al. (2020) · e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2004.14247 · Cited by 324
“Terahertz-band communication [60–62] is envisioned as a 6G technology able to simultaneously support higher data rates (up to around 1 Tbps) and denser networks (towards of billions of interconnected devices).”
BackgroundMillimeter Wave and Sub-Terahertz Spatial Statistical Channel Model for an Indoor Office Building
Ju, S., Xing, Y., Kanhere, O., & Rappaport, T. S. (2021) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/jsac.2021.3071844 · Cited by 260
“THz communication systems will most likely be deployed in indoor environments to support extremely high data rates of over 100 Gbps [2].”
Self-citationKumar, A., Gupta, M., Pitchappa, P., Wang, N., Szriftgiser, P., Ducournau, G., & Singh, R. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-32909-6 · Cited by 258
Emerging light-emitting diodes for next-generation data communications
Ren, A., Wang, H., Zhang, W., Wu, J., Wang, Z., Penty, R. V., & White, I. H. (2021) · Nature Electronics · doi:10.1038/s41928-021-00624-7 · Cited by 257
Transfer Learning Promotes 6G Wireless Communications: Recent Advances and Future Challenges
Wang, M., Lin, Y., Tian, Q., & Si, G. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Reliability · doi:10.1109/tr.2021.3062045 · Cited by 250
“The development of 6G requires many key enabling technologies, which have been comprehensively discussed and prospected in much research, such as artificial intelligence (AI) [6]– [8], multi-input multioutput (MIMO) [9], [10], quantum communication (QC) [3], random access [11], machine-type communications [12], teraher…”
BackgroundToward the 6G Network Era: Opportunities and Challenges
Tomkos, I., Klonidis, D., Pikasis, E., & Theodoridis, S. (2020) · IT Professional · doi:10.1109/mitp.2019.2963491 · Cited by 250
“The ultimate goal will be to enhance all the applications and vertical use cases of 5G networks with the capability of cognition offered by cognitive computing systems that use the vast amounts of available data and Machine Learning (ML) algorithms.(1,2)”
InfluentialA Primer on Near-Field Beamforming for Arrays and Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces
Björnson, E., Demir, Ö. T., & Sanguinetti, L. (2021) · Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers (ACSSC) · doi:10.1109/ieeeconf53345.2021.9723331 · Cited by 240
Swarm of UAVs for Network Management in 6G: A Technical Review
Khan, M. A., Kumar, N., Mohsan, S. A. H., Khan, W. U., Nasralla, M. M., Alsharif, M. H., Żywiołek, J., & Ullah, I. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management · doi:10.1109/tnsm.2022.3213370 · Cited by 264
“…artificial intelligence (AI)/machine learning (ML) [22]–[27], quantum machine learning (QML) [28], blockchain [29], terahertz (THz) communication [30]–[32], fog/edge computing [33], visible light communication (VLC) [34]and other cutting-edge technologies as prerequisites for the deployment of…”
BackgroundNear-Field Wideband Beamforming for Extremely Large Antenna Arrays
Cui, M., & Dai, L. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2024.3398770 · Cited by 235
“Benefiting from the abundant spectrum resources, terahertz (THz) communications can provide a very large bandwidth of several GHz, allowing for Tbps data rates for 6G networks [6].”
AI-Based Joint Optimization of QoS and Security for 6G Energy Harvesting Internet of Things
Mao, B., Kawamoto, Y., & Kato, N. (2020) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2020.2982417 · Cited by 228
Millimeter Wave Base Stations with Cameras: Vision-Aided Beam and Blockage Prediction
Alrabeiah, M., Hredzak, A., & Alkhateeb, A. (2020) · IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference · doi:10.1109/vtc2020-spring48590.2020.9129369 · Cited by 227
“They both support the increasingly-high data rates that future technologies, like virtual reality, augmented reality, and autonomous driving, are demanding [2].”
BackgroundSelf-citationA Tutorial on Movable Antennas for Wireless Networks
Zhu, L., Ma, W., Mei, W., Zeng, Y., Wu, Q., Ning, B., Xiao, Z., Shao, X., Zhang, J., & Zhang, R. (2025) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2025.3546373 · Cited by 226
A Review of Technologies and Design Techniques of Millimeter-Wave Power Amplifiers
Camarchia, V., Quaglia, R., Piacibello, A., Nguyen, D. P., Wang, H., & Pham, A. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2020.2989792 · Cited by 223
“2 GHz unlicensed spectrum between 116 GHz and 246 GHz [180].”
BackgroundOn-chip topological beamformer for multi-link terahertz 6G to XG wireless
Wang, W., Tan, Y. J., Tan, T. C., Kumar, A., Pitchappa, P., Szriftgiser, P., Ducournau, G., & Singh, R. (2024) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07759-5 · Cited by 219
Toward End-to-End, Full-Stack 6G Terahertz Networks
Polese, M., Jornet, J. M., Melodia, T., & Zorzi, M. (2020) · IEEE Communications Magazine · doi:10.1109/mcom.001.2000224 · Cited by 205
“Finally, 6G networks will rely on a combination of sub6 GHz, mmWave and terahertz bands, and, possibly, optical wireless links [1], [2].”
BackgroundMethod6G-Enabled Edge AI for Metaverse: Challenges, Methods, and Future Research Directions
Chang, L., Zhang, Z., Li, P., Xi, S., Guo, W., Shen, Y., Xiong, Z., Kang, J., Niyato, D. T., Qiao, X., et al. (2022) · Journal of Communications and Information Networks · doi:10.23919/jcin.2022.9815195 · Cited by 204
Near-Field Rainbow: Wideband Beam Training for XL-MIMO
Cui, M., Dai, L., Wang, Z., Zhou, S., & Ge, N. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2022.3222198 · Cited by 200
“1000+ antennas), XL-MIMO is able to significantly increase the spectrum efficiency [3].”
BackgroundJoint Radar-Communication Systems: Modulation Schemes and System Design
de Oliveira, L. G., Nuß, B., Alabd, M. B., Diewald, A., Pauli, M., & Zwick, T. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2021.3126887 · Cited by 198
Ultramassive MIMO Systems at Terahertz Bands: Prospects and Challenges
Faisal, A., Sarieddeen, H., Dahrouj, H., Al-Naffouri, T. Y., & Alouini, M. (2020) · IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine · doi:10.1109/mvt.2020.3022998 · Cited by 197
“To mitigate such spatial-frequency wideband effects [2], the channel models must maintain spatial consistency.”
BackgroundFriha, O., Ferrag, M. A., Kantarcı, B., Çakmak, B., Ozgun, A., & Ghoualmi‐Zine, N. (2024) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2024.3456549 · Cited by 224
6G Architecture to Connect the Worlds
Ziegler, V., Viswanathan, H., Flinck, H., Hoffmann, M., Räisänen, V., & Hätönen, K. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.3025032 · Cited by 193
“Several recent papers discuss related 6G vision and technologies [2]–[6].”
BackgroundFive Facets of 6G: Research Challenges and Opportunities
Shen, L.-H., Feng, K., & Hanzo, L. (2022) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3571072 · Cited by 199
“The 6G new radio (NR) will further extend these techniques to the mmWave and THz bands [181] while relying on ultra-massive multiple input multiple output (UM-MIMO) beamforming techniques [41, 198].”
Channel Estimation and Hybrid Combining for Wideband Terahertz Massive MIMO Systems
Dovelos, K., Matthaiou, M., Ngo, H. Q., & Bellalta, B. (2021) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/jsac.2021.3071851 · Cited by 190
“In view of the enormous bandwidth available at Terahertz (THz) frequencies, communication over the THz band is considered as a key technology for future 6G wireless systems [1].”
BackgroundVision-Aided 6G Wireless Communications: Blockage Prediction and Proactive Handoff
Charan, G., Alrabeiah, M., & Alkhateeb, A. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2021.3104219 · Cited by 190
“The problem of LOS link blockage has long been acknowledged as a critical challenge to high-frequency wireless networks, [3], [10]–[12].”
BackgroundSelf-citationSoftwarization of UAV Networks: A Survey of Applications and Future Trends
Oubbati, O. S., Atiquzzaman, M., Ahanger, T. A., & Ibrahim, A. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.2994494 · Cited by 194
Integrated optical frequency division for microwave and mmWave generation
Sun, S., Wang, B., Liu, K., Harrington, M., Tabatabaei, F., Liu, R., Wang, J., Hanifi, S., Morgan, J., Jahanbozorgi, M., et al. (2024) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07057-0 · Cited by 189
“Given these considerations, the novelty and significance of this work may be somewhat limited for publication in a prestigious journal like Nature.”
Spoof surface plasmon photonics
García-Vidal, F. J., Fernández‐Domínguez, A. I., Martín-Moreno, L., Zhang, H. C., Tang, W., Peng, R., & Cui, T. J. (2022) · Reviews of Modern Physics · doi:10.1103/revmodphys.94.025004 · Cited by 195
Millimeter-Wave and Terahertz Spectrum for 6G Wireless
Tripathi, S., Sabu, N. V., Gupta, A. K., & Dhillon, H. S. (2021) · Computer communications and networks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-72777-2_6 · Cited by 184
Potential key technologies for 6G mobile communications
Yuan, Y., Zhao, Y., Zong, B., & Parolari, S. (2020) · Science China Information Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11432-019-2789-y · Cited by 184
Satellite-based communications security: A survey of threats, solutions, and research challenges
Tedeschi, P., Sciancalepore, S., & Pietro, R. D. (2022) · Computer Networks · doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2022.109246 · Cited by 203
“As a result, recent commercial and standardization activities clearly indicate SATCOMs as one of the most important enabling technologies for supporting the development of the upcoming sixth-generation (6G) networks [5].”
Background6G Massive Radio Access Networks: Key Applications, Requirements and Challenges
Lee, Y. L., Qin, D., Wang, L., & Sim, G. H. (2020) · IEEE Open Journal of Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/ojvt.2020.3044569 · Cited by 194
Wang, T., Zhang, Y., Zhang, H., & Cao, M. (2019) · Optical Materials Express · doi:10.1364/ome.383008 · Cited by 177
Real-Time Digital Twins: Vision and Research Directions for 6G and Beyond
Alkhateeb, A., Jiang, S., & Charan, G. (2023) · IEEE Communications Magazine · doi:10.1109/mcom.001.2200866 · Cited by 170
“Heading towards 6G, communication systems are increasingly featuring key trends such as the employment of large numbers of antennas and the use of higher frequency bands [1].”
BackgroundSelf-citationPosition Location for Futuristic Cellular Communications: 5G and Beyond
Kanhere, O., & Rappaport, T. S. (2021) · IEEE Communications Magazine · doi:10.1109/mcom.001.2000150 · Cited by 169
“In the 5G era, it is now possible to achieve very accurate localization performance with highly directional antenna arrays having narrow beamwidths and wide bandwidths [7].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationPapazafeiropoulos, A., Pan, C., Kourtessis, P., Chatzinotas, S., & Senior, J. M. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2021.3109391 · Cited by 168
Shastri, A., Valecha, N., Bashirov, E., Tataria, H., Lentmaier, M., Tufvesson, F., Rossi, M., & Casari, P. (2022) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2022.3177305 · Cited by 184
“Two examples of such simulators are NYURay, a 3D mmWave ray tracer developed by New York University [169], and S_5GChannel, developed by Siradel.”
BackgroundMethodTerahertz-Band Ultra-Massive Spatial Modulation MIMO
Sarieddeen, H., Alouini, M., & Al-Naffouri, T. Y. (2019) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/jsac.2019.2929455 · Cited by 166
“ial oversampling can be considered, in which AE separations can be decreased below spp. This oversampling is argued to decrease the spatio-temporal frequency-domain region of support of plane waves [90], which results in multiple benefits such as reduced noise figures and increased linearity. VIII. CONCLUSION In this pa…”
BackgroundAggarwal, S., Kumar, N., & Tanwar, S. (2020) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2020.3020819 · Cited by 163
“This system becomes more beneficial as it provides 99.999999% QoS with reliability, coverage of 10-km area in the sky, and 200 nm in the sea [158], [159].”
BackgroundInfluentialXing, Y., Rappaport, T. S., & Ghosh, A. (2021) · IEEE Communications Letters · doi:10.1109/lcomm.2021.3088264 · Cited by 160
“Highly directional electronically-steered antenna arrays will be used by both handset terminals and base stations, resulting in directional wireless channels at mmWave, a significant departure from sub-6 GHz frequencies that use less directional antennas but undergo less penetration and diffraction loss from obstacles…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationHeterogeneous Semantic and Bit Communications: A Semi-NOMA Scheme
Mu, X., Liu, Y., Guo, L., & Al‐Dhahir, N. (2022) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/jsac.2022.3222000 · Cited by 167
“According to traditional reasoning, one way of achieving greater capacity is to increase the available bandwidth and number of antennas [6], [7].”
BackgroundMulti-Resident Non-Contact Vital Sign Monitoring Using Radar: A Review
Singh, A., Rehman, S. U., Yongchareon, S., & Chong, P. H. J. (2020) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2020.3036039 · Cited by 157
“[42] have explained that the mmWaves are nonionizing as the photon energy of”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Rappaport, T. S., Xing, Y., Kanhere, O., Ju, S., Madanayake, A., Mandal, S., Alkhateeb, A., & Trichopoulos, G. C.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Florida International University (US)
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Arizona State University (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- IEEE Access
- Published
- 2019
- Volume
- 7
- Pages
- 78729-78757
- ISSN
- 2169-3536 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2955897898
- Cited by
- 2,617
- References
- 155
- Citations by year
- 2026: 333 · 2025: 448 · 2024: 412 · 2023: 422 · 2022: 406 · 2021: 356 · 2020: 214 · 2019: 26
- FWCI
- 90.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- IEEE Access (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1702967, 1731290, 1902283, 1711395, 1854798, 1730946)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Antenna Design and Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Terahertz technology and applications
- Keywords
- terahertz communication, 6G, wireless sensing, wireless imaging, position location, smart antennas, beam steering, propagation models, channel modeling, spatial consistency, power efficiency, spectrum regulation
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