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Wireless Communications and Applications Above 100 GHz: Opportunities and Challenges for 6G and Beyond
Open accessAbstract
Frequencies from 100 GHz to 3 THz are promising bands for the next generation of wireless communication systems because of the wide swaths of unused and unexplored spectrum. These frequencies also offer the potential for revolutionary applications that will be made possible by new thinking, and advances in devices, circuits, software, signal processing, and systems. This paper describes many of the technical challenges and opportunities for wireless communication and sensing applications above 100 GHz, and presents a number of promising discoveries, novel approaches, and recent results that will aid in the development and implementation of the sixth generation (6G) of wireless networks, and beyond. This paper shows recent regulatory and standard body rulings that are anticipating wireless products and services above 100 GHz and illustrates the viability of wireless cognition, hyper-accurate position location, sensing, and imaging. This paper also presents approaches and results that show how long distance mobile communications will be supported to above 800 GHz since the antenna gains are able to overcome air-induced attenuation, and present methods that reduce the computational complexity and simplify the signal processing used in adaptive antenna arrays, by exploiting the Special Theory of Relativity to create a cone of silence in over-sampled antenna arrays that improve performance for digital phased array antennas. Also, new results that give insights into power efficient beam steering algorithms, and new propagation and partition loss models above 100 GHz are given, and promising imaging, array processing, and position location results are presented. The implementation of spatial consistency at THz frequencies, an important component of channel modeling that considers minute changes and correlations over space, is also discussed. This paper offers the first in-depth look at the vast applications of THz wireless products and applications and provides approaches for how to reduce power and increase performance across several problem domains, giving early evidence that THz techniques are compelling and available for future wireless communications.
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“Bandwidth expansion from the millimetre-wave regime to the THz regime also causes uncertain biological impacts on humans and animals.”
From What should 6G be? (2020) · cites this paper as [26]
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SiGe and CMOS Technology for State-of-the-Art Millimeter-Wave Transceivers
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“Millimeter- and submillimeter-wave scanning arrays will play a major role in communication and sensing scenarios in future 6G networks and automotive applications [1], [2].”
BackgroundReflection Characteristics Measurements of Indoor Wireless Link in D-Band
Wang, M., Wang, Y., Li, W., Ding, J., Bian, C., Wang, X., Wang, C., Li, C., Zhong, Z., & Yu, J. (2022) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22186908 · Cited by 24
Near-Field Channel Reconstruction and User Localization for ELAA Systems
Lu, Z., Han, Y., Jin, S., Matthaiou, M., & Quek, T. Q. S. (2022) · International Symposium on Wireless Communication Systems · doi:10.1109/iswcs56560.2022.9940362 · Cited by 24
“Equally importantly, the size of antenna elements can be made very small at high-frequency bands [4], which makes it possible to pack an extremely large number of antennas in a limited area.”
BackgroundGraphene based quad port terahertz MIMO antenna for wireless indoor communications
Pandey, G. K., Thipparaju, R. R., & Mondal, S. (2023) · Optical and Quantum Electronics · doi:10.1007/s11082-023-05050-x · Cited by 24
“Therefore, THz will play a vital role for future generations (5G beyond and 6G), which requires a high data rate and throughput (Rappaport et al. 2019).”
BackgroundMiyamoto, M., Kobayashi, R., Kuwano, G., Tsujimoto, M., & Kakeya, I. (2024) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/s41566-023-01348-0 · Cited by 24
“In particular, coherent radiation and detection in the subterahertz region, which are crucial for communications, have recently attracted attention as a key technology for next-generation ultrahigh-speed wireless communication networks 4,5 .”
A Bi-Directional Multi-Band, Multi-Beam mm-Wave Beamformer for 5G Fiber Wireless Access Networks
Huang, M.-Y., Chen, Y.-W., Shiu, R., Wang, H., & Chang, G. (2020) · Journal of Lightwave Technology · doi:10.1109/jlt.2020.3042052 · Cited by 24
“N EXT-GENERATION (post-5G) wireless networks promise 50x more speed, 10x less latency, and 1000x more capacity than 4G/LTE [1], [2], while requiring low-latency response and high capacity access nodes for future broadband mobile fiber-wireless links.”
BackgroundJoint Channel and Phase Noise Estimation and Data Detection for GFDM
Mohammadian, A., & Tellambura, C. (2021) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2021.3073348 · Cited by 24
“⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎣ J[0] J[N − 1] · · · J[1] J[1] J[0] · · · J[2] .”
InfluentialAn Abstracted Survey on 6G: Drivers, Requirements, Efforts, and EnablersPreprint
Han, B., Jiang, W., Habibi, M. A., & Schotten, H. D. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2101.01062 · Cited by 31
“[3] June 2019 Terahertz Describe the technical challenges and potentials for wireless communications and sensing above 100GHz, and presents discoveries, approaches, and recent results that will aid in the development and implementation of the 6G networks.”
BackgroundA 400-GHz Efficient Radiator and OOK Transceiver for Multi-Gb/s Wireless Communication in Silicon
Thomas, S., Razavian, S., Virdi, J. S., Sun, W., Motlagh, B. F., & Babakhani, A. (2024) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2024.3353809 · Cited by 23
“Positioned between the RF and optical frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum, this band can enable several applications, such as high-resolution imaging, radar, and spectroscopy [2], [3], [4].”
BackgroundZandboer, J. C. F., Federico, G., Johannsen, U., & Smolders, A. B. (2025) · IEEE Open Journal of Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/ojap.2025.3546122 · Cited by 23
“The latter involves applications such as high-precision radar localization and non-invasive imaging [9], [10], [11].”
Maurya, N. K., Kumari, S., Ram, G. C., & Panneerselvam, S. (2025) · Optics & Laser Technology · doi:10.1016/j.optlastec.2025.112793 · Cited by 23
Abdallah, A., Hussain, A., Çelik, A., & Eltawil, A. M. (2025) · IEEE Signal Processing Magazine · doi:10.1109/msp.2024.3508474 · Cited by 23
Aloudat, M. Z., Aboumadi, A., Soliman, A., Al-Mohammed, H. A., Al-Ali, M. S., Mahgoub, A., Barhamgi, M., & Yaacoub, E. E. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3555753 · Cited by 31
“High-speed, low-latency connections enable real-time interactions, creating a more authentic and engaging virtual environment [45].”
Intelligentization of Electromagnetic Functional Materials: From Design to Applications
Wang, Q., Liu, D., Zhou, J., Liu, G., Wang, L., & Wu, R. (2025) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202510212 · Cited by 23
Dynamic-Driven Congestion Control and Segment Rerouting in the 6G-Enabled Data Networks
Deebak, B. D., Al-Turjman, F. M., & Alazab, M. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics · doi:10.1109/tii.2020.3023944 · Cited by 23
MaxRay: A Raytracing-based Integrated Sensing and Communication Framework
Arnold, M., Bauhofer, M., Mandelli, S., Henninger, M., Schaich, F., Wild, T., & ten Brink, S. (2022) · IEEE International Symposium on Joint Communications & Sensing (JC&S) · doi:10.1109/jcs54387.2022.9743510 · Cited by 23
The Proximity Radio Access Network for 5G and 6G
Bi, Q. (2022) · IEEE Communications Magazine · doi:10.1109/mcom.001.21494 · Cited by 23
Air-to-ground path loss prediction using ray tracing and measurement data jointly driven DNN
Li, H., Chen, X., Mao, K., Zhu, Q., Qiu, Y., Ye, X., Zhong, W., & Lin, Z. (2022) · Computer Communications · doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2022.10.007 · Cited by 23
Tracking and Transmission Design in Terahertz V2I Networks
Lin, Z., Wang, L., Ding, J., Xu, Y., & Tan, B. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2022.3211647 · Cited by 23
“Although phased arrays have been used in 5G mmWave systems, the implementation of them in the THz links are confronted with many challenging issues involving antenna scale [10], [14], path discovery [15], feed network design [16] and beam squinting [17], etc.”
BackgroundMethodEmpirical blockage characterization and detection in indoor sub-THz communications
Shurakov, A. S., Moltchanov, D., Prikhodko, A. N., Khakimov, A. A., Mokrov, E., Begishev, V. O., Belikov, I., Koucheryavy, Y. A., & Gol'tsman, G. N. (2023) · Computer Communications · doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2023.01.017 · Cited by 23
Terahertz magnon frequency comb
Yao, X., Jin, Z., Wang, Z., Zeng, Z., & Yan, P. (2023) · Physical review. B./Physical review. B · doi:10.1103/physrevb.108.134427 · Cited by 23
“THz technology has been widely applied to many fields, such as the wireless communication [3], medical imaging [4], security inspection [5], etc. Photonic and / or electronic THz devices, like quantum cascade laser [6], uni-travelling-carrier photodiode [7], Schottky-diode-based multipliers [8],…”
BackgroundAhmmed, T., Kiayani, A., Shubair, R. M., & Yanıkömeroğlu, H. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3333251 · Cited by 23
“This includes improving the performance of 5G NR air interface, and incorporating integrated AI and communication in the forthcoming 6G [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18].”
MethodTowards 6G wireless networks-challenges and potential technologies
Ahmed, R., & Matin, M. A. (2020) · Journal of Electrical Engineering · doi:10.2478/jee-2020-0040 · Cited by 23
“In [21], the authors suggest the use of a new technique of using spatially-oversampled antenna while also presenting novel architectures of phased array devices and approaches to compact computation, all of which enable the steering of the beam using much lower chip real estate and power.”
BackgroundMethodOutdoor sub-THz Position Location and Tracking using Field Measurements at 142 GHz
Kanhere, O., & Rappaport, T. S. (2021) · International Conference on Communications · doi:10.1109/icc42927.2021.9500482 · Cited by 23
“future sub-THz cellular networks are prime candidates to complement GPS for position location [2].”
BackgroundSelf-citationA Novel THz Massive MIMO Beam Domain Channel Model for 6G Wireless Communication Systems
Wang, J., Wang, C., Huang, J., Feng, R., Aggoune, E. M., & Chen, Y. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2023.3257490 · Cited by 22
“In order to support the ultra-high data rate of 6G communications, higher frequency bands up to mmWave [6], [7], [8] and THz [9], [10], [11] need to be employed.”
BackgroundBhandari, A., Gupta, A., Tanwar, S., Rodrigues, J. J. P. C., Sharma, R., & Singh, A. K. (2024) · Computer Networks · doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2024.110459 · Cited by 22
A D-Band Wideband Magnetoelectric Dipole Antenna Array Based on Micro-Metal Additive Manufacturing
Zhong, X., Li, Q., Guo, C., Li, J., Wang, Z., Shi, J., Chen, X., & Zhang, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2024.3423386 · Cited by 22
“N OWADAYS, there is noticeable attention to the development of sub-terahertz (THz) frequency band (100–300 GHz) for future communications, due to the enormous demand for super-fast wireless link systems, high-resolution imaging, sensing, and centimeter-level positioning [1].”
BackgroundUsing MetaPrisms for Performance Improvement in Wireless Communications
Dardari, D., & Massari, D. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2020.3049047 · Cited by 21
“THE exponential growth in traffic demand in wireless networks has forced the exploitation of new frequency bands in the millimeter wave region and, more in perspective, at THz frequencies [1], [2].”
BackgroundLi, Y., Ding, L., Zheng, Q., Zhu, Y., & Sheng, J. (2020) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s20092669 · Cited by 22
A Hybrid Intelligent Reflecting Surface with Graphene-based Control Elements for THz Communications
Singh, A., Andrello, M., Erik Einarsson, A., Thawdarl, N., & Jornet, J. M. (2020) · IEEE International Workshop on Signal Processing Advances in Wireless Communications (SPAWC) · doi:10.1109/spawc48557.2020.9154305 · Cited by 22
Pimienta‐del‐Valle, D., Mendo, L., Riera, J. M., & García-del-Pino, P. (2020) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics9111867 · Cited by 22
“Nowadays, the focus is being drawn towards very high frequency bands reaching up to the D band and the sub-THz bands for beyond 5G technologies (with several campaigns being conducted at such bands [4]).”
BackgroundKey performance requirement of future next wireless networks (6G)
Solyman, A., & Yahya, K. A. (2021) · Bulletin of Electrical Engineering and Informatics · doi:10.11591/eei.v10i6.3176 · Cited by 22
“Individual data rates are predicted to rise from 1 Gbps in 5G to at least 10 Gbps for every user in upcoming 6G systems, and up to 100 Gbps in specific use cases [9].”
BackgroundThe future of computing paradigms for medical and emergency applications
Alekseeva, D., Ometov, A., Arponen, O., & Lohan, E. S. (2022) · Computer Science Review · doi:10.1016/j.cosrev.2022.100494 · Cited by 26
Coverage and Capacity of Terahertz Cellular Networks With Joint Transmission
Olson, N. R., Andrews, J. G., & Heath, R. W. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2022.3179963 · Cited by 22
“Consequently, coherent strategies may be challenging to implement in the THz band due to the high phase noise of THz sources and synchronization limitations [3].”
BackgroundHierarchical Bandwidth Modulations for Ultra-Broadband Communications in the Terahertz Band
Bodet, D. M., Sen, P., Hossain, Z., Thawdar, N., & Jornet, J. M. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2022.3207966 · Cited by 22
“Although they have primarily been limited to sensing applications [1], THz signals have significant potential for wireless communications due to their large available bandwidths.”
A Novel Energy Efficiency Metric for Next-Generation Green Wireless Communication Network Design
Yu, T., Zhang, S., Chen, X., & Wang, X. (2022) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2022.3210166 · Cited by 22
“…worldwide via nearly instantaneous, reliable, and unlimited wireless resources [11], the concept of next-generation (6G) wireless communication networks has been raised in many existing literature, and several representative technologies have been widely discussed [12], [13] to fulfill this target.”
BackgroundChannel Power Gain Estimation for Terahertz Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Networks
Zheng, L. L., Wang, L., Ding, J., Tan, B., & Jin, S. (2022) · IEEE Communications Letters · doi:10.1109/lcomm.2022.3211206 · Cited by 22
“However, the implementations of conventional antenna arrays in THz systems are confronted with many challenges in terms of the hardware components/architecture [1], access latency [3, 4], link budget [4, 5] and path discovery [6] etc.”
BackgroundScattering and Eavesdropping in Terahertz Wireless Link by Wavy Surfaces
Li, P., Wang, J., Zhao, L., Gao, X., Song, F., Sun, H., & Ma, J. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2023.3241333 · Cited by 22
“walls, and roads [5], [6], where the carrier wavelength is comparable to the surface roughness of such typical surfaces and would suffer serious scattering effects.”
BackgroundA 260–300-GHz Mixer-First IQ Receiver With Fundamental LO Driver in 130-nm SiGe Process
Trinh, V., Song, J.-M., & Park, J. (2023) · IEEE Microwave and Wireless Technology Letters · doi:10.1109/lmwt.2022.3228646 · Cited by 22
“Such high-speed communication systems must be quite appealing in many applications such as data distribution in data centers, robotic control, or autonomous vehicles [3].”
BackgroundA 100–180-GHz Coaxial Frequency Tripler Based on Copper Additive Manufacturing
Wen, X., Yang, H., Wu, Z., Yu, Y., Shi, G., Wang, Z., Song, X., Liang, S., Gu, G., Lv, Y., et al. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2023.3254304 · Cited by 22
Optical Beamforming Networks for Millimeter-Wave Wireless Communications
Duan, F., Guo, Y., Gu, Z., Yin, Y., Wu, Y., & Chen, T. (2023) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app13148346 · Cited by 22
THz Communications: A Key Enabler for Future Cellular Networks
Saqib, N. U., Haroon, M. S., Lee, H. Y., Park, K., Song, H.-G., & Jeon, S.-W. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3326443 · Cited by 22
“Moreover, THz presents different communication applications, including centimeter-level localization, sensing, imaging, and precise positioning [8], [18], [19].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLyu, Y., Yuan, Z., Li, M., Mbugua, A. W., Kyösti, P., & Fan, W. (2024) · IEEE Communications Magazine · doi:10.1109/mcom.001.2200411 · Cited by 22
“…(sub-THz) communication , operating at even higher to be one of the key enabling building blocks for the future communication systems due to its huge unregulated bandwidth resources of up to tens of gigahertz and easy coexistence with other regulated and standardized frequency spectrum [1].”
Background6G Wireless Communication Networks
Haque, M. A., Ahmad, S., Abboud, A. J., Hossain, M. A., Kumar, K., Haque, S., Sonal, D., Rahman, M., & Senapathy, M. (2024) · International Journal of Business Data Communications and Networking · doi:10.4018/ijbdcn.339889 · Cited by 22
Impact of Meteorological Attenuation on Channel Characterization at 300 GHz
Lai, Z., Yi, H., Guan, K., Ai, B., Zhong, W., Dou, J., Zeng, Y. Z., & Zhong, Z. D. (2020) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics9071115 · Cited by 22
“Moreover, in [7,8], the authors conducted surveys on the extensive hardware problems.”
BackgroundGhasempour, Y., Yeh, C.-Y., Shrestha, R., Amarasinghe, Y., Mittleman, D. M., & Knightly, E. W. (2020) · ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (SenSys) · doi:10.1145/3384419.3430717 · Cited by 22
“1 GHz.”
InfluentialPathloss modeling of reconfigurable intelligent surface assisted THz wireless systems
Boulogeorgos, A. A., & Alexiou, A. (2021) · International Conference on Communications · doi:10.1109/icc42927.2021.9500473 · Cited by 22
Metadata
- Authors
- Rappaport, T. S., Xing, Y., Kanhere, O., Ju, S., Madanayake, A., Mandal, S., Alkhateeb, A., & Trichopoulos, G. C.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Florida International University (US)
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Arizona State University (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- IEEE Access
- Published
- 2019
- Volume
- 7
- Pages
- 78729-78757
- ISSN
- 2169-3536 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2955897898
- Cited by
- 2,617
- References
- 155
- Citations by year
- 2026: 333 · 2025: 448 · 2024: 412 · 2023: 422 · 2022: 406 · 2021: 356 · 2020: 214 · 2019: 26
- FWCI
- 90.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- IEEE Access (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1702967, 1731290, 1902283, 1711395, 1854798, 1730946)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Antenna Design and Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Terahertz technology and applications
- Keywords
- terahertz communication, 6G, wireless sensing, wireless imaging, position location, smart antennas, beam steering, propagation models, channel modeling, spatial consistency, power efficiency, spectrum regulation
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