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Wireless Communications and Applications Above 100 GHz: Opportunities and Challenges for 6G and Beyond
Open accessAbstract
Frequencies from 100 GHz to 3 THz are promising bands for the next generation of wireless communication systems because of the wide swaths of unused and unexplored spectrum. These frequencies also offer the potential for revolutionary applications that will be made possible by new thinking, and advances in devices, circuits, software, signal processing, and systems. This paper describes many of the technical challenges and opportunities for wireless communication and sensing applications above 100 GHz, and presents a number of promising discoveries, novel approaches, and recent results that will aid in the development and implementation of the sixth generation (6G) of wireless networks, and beyond. This paper shows recent regulatory and standard body rulings that are anticipating wireless products and services above 100 GHz and illustrates the viability of wireless cognition, hyper-accurate position location, sensing, and imaging. This paper also presents approaches and results that show how long distance mobile communications will be supported to above 800 GHz since the antenna gains are able to overcome air-induced attenuation, and present methods that reduce the computational complexity and simplify the signal processing used in adaptive antenna arrays, by exploiting the Special Theory of Relativity to create a cone of silence in over-sampled antenna arrays that improve performance for digital phased array antennas. Also, new results that give insights into power efficient beam steering algorithms, and new propagation and partition loss models above 100 GHz are given, and promising imaging, array processing, and position location results are presented. The implementation of spatial consistency at THz frequencies, an important component of channel modeling that considers minute changes and correlations over space, is also discussed. This paper offers the first in-depth look at the vast applications of THz wireless products and applications and provides approaches for how to reduce power and increase performance across several problem domains, giving early evidence that THz techniques are compelling and available for future wireless communications.
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“Bandwidth expansion from the millimetre-wave regime to the THz regime also causes uncertain biological impacts on humans and animals.”
From What should 6G be? (2020) · cites this paper as [26]
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BackgroundInfluentialFDSS-Based DFT-s-OFDM for 6G Wireless Sensing
Chen, L., Pan, J., Zhang, J., Cheng, J., Xu, L., & Ye, N. (2023) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s23031495 · Cited by 10
“Moreover, in 6G, wireless communication and sensing will have more similarities in the operating spectrum, hardware structure, and signal processing [5], which provides a further opportunity to integrate the communication and sensing.”
BackgroundA Wideband Millimeter-Wave Communication and Sensing Testbed for 75–500 GHz
Strecker, K. L., Choi, W., & O’Hara, J. F. (2023) · IEEE Texas Symposium on Wireless and Microwave Circuits and Systems (WMCS) · doi:10.1109/wmcs58822.2023.10194272 · Cited by 10
Kato, Y. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement · doi:10.1109/tim.2023.3303535 · Cited by 10
“IN THE sixth-generation (6G) wireless communication, millimeter waves above 100 GHz are supposed to be used to realize high-speed and large-capacity communication with performances far exceeding those of 5G [1], [2],”
BackgroundHu, B., Huang, M., Li, Y., & Zhao, J. (2023) · Optical Materials Express · doi:10.1364/ome.499390 · Cited by 10
Three-Dimensional Geometry-based Stochastic Model for Sub-Terahertz Air-to-Air UAV-MIMO channels
Zhang, K., Wang, H., Zhang, C., Yu, X., & Dong, Y. (2023) · IEEE/CIC International Conference on Communications in China (ICCC) · doi:10.1109/iccc57788.2023.10233307 · Cited by 10
“We can see that the SCCF decreases with the increase of antenna element spacing at either Tx or Rx, which is inline with the findings in [17].”
BackgroundZhang, K., Wang, H., Zhang, C., Yu, X., & Dong, Y. (2023) · International Conference on Communications · doi:10.1109/icc45041.2023.10279768 · Cited by 10
“In [18], the channel measurements at indoor environment have been carried out in 300GHz bands, and the distribution of the path loss is analyzed.”
MethodЗинченко, И. И., Lapinov, A. V., Vdovin, V. F., Zemlyanukha, P. M., & Khabarova, T. A. (2023) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app132111706 · Cited by 10
Ragheb, A. M., Tareq, Q., Esmail, M. A., Fathallah, H., Alshebeili, S. A., & Khan, M. Z. M. (2023) · IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics · doi:10.1109/jstqe.2023.3299228 · Cited by 10
PourHosseini, M., Jarchi, S., Rezaei, P., & Kashani, Z. G. (2024) · Optical and Quantum Electronics · doi:10.1007/s11082-024-06685-0 · Cited by 10
“The terahertz frequency range (between 100 GHz and 10 terahertz) is a part of electromagnetic waves that include microwaves and light waves (Rappaport et al. 2019).”
6G: Enabling the Future of Healthcare Delivery
Karak, A., Chirputkar, A., & Ashok, P. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Information Technology, Electronics and Intelligent Communication Systems (ICITEICS) · doi:10.1109/iciteics61368.2024.10625060 · Cited by 10
High Speed Terahertz Devices via Emerging Hybrid GNRFET/Josephson Junction Technologies
Cochran, Z., Ytterdal, T., Madan, A., & Rizkalla, M. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity · doi:10.1109/tasc.2020.2996759 · Cited by 10
“Though 5G communication networks have not been completely implemented yet as of the time of writing, 6G is already being investigated as the next generation of communication, as well as the potential roadblocks and challenges it may present [53].”
BackgroundReconfigurable microwave properties of zigzag magnetic nanowires
Begari, K., & Haldar, A. (2020) · Journal of Physics D Applied Physics · doi:10.1088/1361-6463/aba571 · Cited by 10
Gao, J., Dang, J., Zhang, Z., & Wu, L. (2020) · IEEE photonics journal · doi:10.1109/jphot.2020.3022917 · Cited by 11
“Some important views on the sixth generation (6 G) mobile communication have been proposed with a vision to fill in the gap [1], [2].”
BackgroundMillimeter Wave Position Location using Multipath Differentiation for 3GPP using Field Measurements
Kanhere, O., & Rappaport, T. S. (2020) · Globecom · doi:10.1109/globecom42002.2020.9348110 · Cited by 10
“Position location (also called positioning or localization) is a key application for the fifth generation of mobile technologies (5G) and beyond [1].”
BackgroundSelf-citationSung, J.-Y., Tangdiongga, E., & Koonen, A. M. J. (2021) · Journal of Lightwave Technology · doi:10.1109/jlt.2021.3052226 · Cited by 10
“In some preliminary discussions for the potential features of the 6G systems, opening the radio spectrum up to THz is anticipated [1].”
BackgroundAn Optimized M-ary Amplitude Phase Shift Keying Scheme for Ultrabroadband Terahertz Communication
Sen, P., Ariyarathna, V., & Jornet, J. M. (2022) · IEEE Consumer Communications and Networking Conference · doi:10.1109/ccnc49033.2022.9700581 · Cited by 10
“This becomes much significant in THz systems where strict output power limitations exist [4].”
Iannacci, J., & Tagliapietra, G. (2022) · Microsystem Technologies · doi:10.1007/s00542-022-05285-w · Cited by 10
“…pivotal to 6G/TI/Super-IoT is developed as follows: • Above 6 GHz Radio Frequency (RF) components, devices and systems, including mm-waves (30–60 GHz), beyond mm-waves (up to 100 GHz) and THz (100–300 GHz), for the transition from 5G Small Cells to 6G Tiny Cells (Rappaport et al. 2019).”
BackgroundHuang, F., Fan, S., Tian, Y., Qu, X., Li, X., Javid, M., Zhang, X., Zhang, Z., & Dong, X. (2022) · Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids · doi:10.1016/j.jpcs.2022.110825 · Cited by 10
Research on Silicon‐Based Terahertz Communication Integrated Circuits
Zhou, P., Chen, J., Tang, S., Yu, J., Chen, W. A. N. G., Huanbo, L. I., Lu, H., Yan, P., Hou, D., Chen, Z., et al. (2022) · Chinese Journal of Electronics · doi:10.1049/cje.2021.00.253 · Cited by 10
Scalable Quadrature Spatial Modulation
Rou, H. S., de Abreu, G. T. F., Iimori, H., David González, G., & Gonsa, O. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2022.3175579 · Cited by 10
“…attractive for future wireless systems such as beyond fifth generation (B5G), which will continue to make extensive use of millimeter-wave (mmWave) bands, and sixth generation (6G) networks [4], which are expected to also incorporate Terahertz and visible light communications (VLC) bands [5].”
BackgroundChen, J., Jia, J., Xing, S., Wang, J., Shi, J., Zhang, J., & Chi, N. (2022) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.463242 · Cited by 10
A Survey of Simultaneous Localization and Mapping with an Envision in 6G Wireless Networks
Huang, B., Zhao, J., Luo, S., & Liu, J. (2021) · Journal of Global Positioning Systems · doi:10.5081/jgps.17.2.206 · Cited by 11
Device-to-Device Communication in Terahertz Frequency Band: Enhancement of Energy Efficiency
Tultul, N. A., Farha, S., Hossain, S. S., Hossain, M. A., & Sabuj, S. R. (2020) · IEEE Region 10 Conference (TENCON) · doi:10.1109/tencon50793.2020.9293736 · Cited by 10
“Some examples are [4]: THz frequency allows enough wide bandwidth that helps us to control wireless robots from long distance , more operative than infrared rays and light based imaging systems in terms of providing high definition video resolution, capable of faster Fig.”
BackgroundNawaz, S. J., Sharma, S. K., Mansoor, B., Patwary, M. N., & Khan, N. M. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · Cited by 10
Intelligent Reflecting Surfaces: Sum-Rate Optimization Based on Statistical CSIPreprint
Abrardo, A., Dardari, D., & Renzo, M. D. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2012.10679 · Cited by 10
“The path towards sixth generation (6G) wireless networks foresees the use of new frequency bands such as the terahertz (THz) spectrum, as well as the development of new transmission technologies in order to comply with the challenging requirements introduced by new mobile applications [1]–[4].”
BackgroundHe, F., Xie, Q., & Wang, Z. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I Regular Papers · doi:10.1109/tcsi.2023.3338736 · Cited by 9
“N OWADAYS, the superiority of terahertz waves has led to increased attention on terahertz and sub-terahertz techniques in various applications [1], [2], [3].”
BackgroundA Hybrid Antenna-Metasurface Architecture for mmWave and THz Massive MIMO
Shao, Z., Shen, R., Xia, W., Ghasempour, Y., Sengupta, K., & Rangan, S. (2023) · Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers (ACSSC) · doi:10.1109/ieeeconf59524.2023.10477069 · Cited by 9
“The challenges are expected to exacerbate at THz, where links will suffer even higher path losses, including molecular absorption [2].”
BackgroundSub-Terahertz MassiveMIMO Channel Sounder for 6G Mobile Communication Systems
Inomata, M., Yamada, W., Taniguchi, R., Kuno, N., Kitao, K., Tomie, T., Suyama, S., Millhaem, M. R., Miyake, T., & Nichols, R. (2024) · European Conference on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.23919/eucap60739.2024.10501562 · Cited by 9
When High-Speed Communication Hits a Speed Bump: Exploring Shannon’s Equation in mm-Wave Links
D’heer, C., & Reynaert, P. (2024) · IEEE Microwave Magazine · doi:10.1109/mmm.2024.3378611 · Cited by 9
Sub-THz Conformal Lens Integrated WR3.4 Antenna for High-Gain Beam-Steering
Bhutani, A., Dittmer, J., Valenziano, L., & Zwick, T. (2024) · IEEE Open Journal of Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/ojap.2024.3412282 · Cited by 9
“Even in a short line-of-sight (LOS) scenario spanning only a few meters, the free space path loss (FSPL) and atmospheric attenuation remain key concerns [1], [2], [3].”
BackgroundArbitrary Subarrayed Planar Array Antenna With Sidelobe Level Control Based on a Graph Theory
Ertuğrul, Y., Kapusuz, K. Y., Desset, C., & Pollin, S. (2024) · IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters · doi:10.1109/lawp.2024.3438455 · Cited by 9
Intelligent Reflecting Surface-Assisted Wireless Communication Using RNNs: Comprehensive Insights
Tabassum, R., Sejan, M. A. S., Rahman, M. H., Aziz, M. A., & Song, H. (2024) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math12192973 · Cited by 9
“This means that relays to implement multiple-antenna systems in millimeter and submil-limeter wave frequency bands may be expensive and energy-intensive [23].”
BackgroundFull D-Band GaN Power Amplifier MMIC and Waveguide Module
Ćwikliński, M., Riedmann, N., Ziegler, R., Vossiek, M., Brückner, P., Schwantuschke, D., & Mikulla, M. (2024) · European Microwave Integrated Circuits Conference · doi:10.23919/eumic61603.2024.10732626 · Cited by 9
“The D-band (110–170 GHz) is an important spectrum region that has recently gained a notable interest from applications including next-generation high-data-rate wireless communication links [1] and high-resolution imaging systems [2].”
BackgroundIntegrated sensing and communications waveform design: Fundamentals, applications, challenges
Luo, Z., & Wang, Z. (2024) · Physical Communication · doi:10.1016/j.phycom.2024.102532 · Cited by 9
Near-Field Wideband Beamforming for RIS Based on Fresnel Zones
Yu, Q., & Dai, L. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2024.3523960 · Cited by 9
“Emerging technologies such as millimeter-wave (mmWave) and terahertz (THz) communications are expected to be adopted in the future, offering ultra-wide bandwidth of several gigahertz (GHz) or even higher to facilitate high-speed data transmission [2], [3].”
Site-Specific Ray-Tracing and Experimental Validation for THz Channel Characterization
Yuan, Z., Yu, G., Lyu, Y., Zhang, J., Zhang, F., & Fan, W. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Terahertz Science and Technology · doi:10.1109/tthz.2025.3534736 · Cited by 9
Lim, B., & Vu, M. H. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2025.3551763 · Cited by 9
“T HE growing demand for ultra-high data rates in beyond fifth-generation (5G) and sixth-generation (6G) networks has established millimeter-wave (mmWave) and sub-terahertz (sub-THz) communications as pivotal solutions [1].”
Lü, X., Yu, J., Li, W., Zhao, X., Zhu, M., Zhang, J., Yang, X., Wang, M., Wei, Y., Zhang, Q., et al. (2025) · Journal of Lightwave Technology · doi:10.1109/jlt.2025.3553834 · Cited by 9
“Compared with 5G, the requirements for higher data transmission rate, lower latency and more efficient spectrum utilization are more pressing [1], [2], [3], [4].”
Paruchuri, S., Bolisetty, V. V., Anandkumar, D., & Sailaja, B. V. S. (2025) · Nano Communication Networks · doi:10.1016/j.nancom.2025.100572 · Cited by 9
Li, Q., Zhong, X., Guo, C., Wang, Z., Shi, G., Huang, C., & Chen, X. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2025.3555899 · Cited by 9
“S UB-TERAHERTZ (Sub-THz) (100–300 GHz) technology has been rapidly developed in recent years for numerous promising applications, such as ultrahigh-speed wireless communications, high-resolution imaging, radio astronomy, etc. [1].”
Abdelmagid, B. A., Choi, K., Kim, Y.-I., & Wang, H. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2025.3568127 · Cited by 9
“and sub-THz spectrums have been actively explored for beyond-5G and -6G wireless communication and sensing [1], [2], [3].”
Rasheed, I., & Mostafa, H. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2025.3574081 · Cited by 9
“V EHICLE-TO-EVERYTHING (V2X) communications leveraging millimeter wave (mmWave) technology represent a transformative advancement in next-generation intelligent transportation systems, promising multi-gigabit data rates and ultra-low latency [1].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Rappaport, T. S., Xing, Y., Kanhere, O., Ju, S., Madanayake, A., Mandal, S., Alkhateeb, A., & Trichopoulos, G. C.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Florida International University (US)
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Arizona State University (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- IEEE Access
- Published
- 2019
- Volume
- 7
- Pages
- 78729-78757
- ISSN
- 2169-3536 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2955897898
- Cited by
- 2,617
- References
- 155
- Citations by year
- 2026: 333 · 2025: 448 · 2024: 412 · 2023: 422 · 2022: 406 · 2021: 356 · 2020: 214 · 2019: 26
- FWCI
- 90.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- IEEE Access (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1702967, 1731290, 1902283, 1711395, 1854798, 1730946)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Antenna Design and Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Terahertz technology and applications
- Keywords
- terahertz communication, 6G, wireless sensing, wireless imaging, position location, smart antennas, beam steering, propagation models, channel modeling, spatial consistency, power efficiency, spectrum regulation
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