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Wireless Communications and Applications Above 100 GHz: Opportunities and Challenges for 6G and Beyond
Open accessAbstract
Frequencies from 100 GHz to 3 THz are promising bands for the next generation of wireless communication systems because of the wide swaths of unused and unexplored spectrum. These frequencies also offer the potential for revolutionary applications that will be made possible by new thinking, and advances in devices, circuits, software, signal processing, and systems. This paper describes many of the technical challenges and opportunities for wireless communication and sensing applications above 100 GHz, and presents a number of promising discoveries, novel approaches, and recent results that will aid in the development and implementation of the sixth generation (6G) of wireless networks, and beyond. This paper shows recent regulatory and standard body rulings that are anticipating wireless products and services above 100 GHz and illustrates the viability of wireless cognition, hyper-accurate position location, sensing, and imaging. This paper also presents approaches and results that show how long distance mobile communications will be supported to above 800 GHz since the antenna gains are able to overcome air-induced attenuation, and present methods that reduce the computational complexity and simplify the signal processing used in adaptive antenna arrays, by exploiting the Special Theory of Relativity to create a cone of silence in over-sampled antenna arrays that improve performance for digital phased array antennas. Also, new results that give insights into power efficient beam steering algorithms, and new propagation and partition loss models above 100 GHz are given, and promising imaging, array processing, and position location results are presented. The implementation of spatial consistency at THz frequencies, an important component of channel modeling that considers minute changes and correlations over space, is also discussed. This paper offers the first in-depth look at the vast applications of THz wireless products and applications and provides approaches for how to reduce power and increase performance across several problem domains, giving early evidence that THz techniques are compelling and available for future wireless communications.
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“Bandwidth expansion from the millimetre-wave regime to the THz regime also causes uncertain biological impacts on humans and animals.”
From What should 6G be? (2020) · cites this paper as [26]
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“The Terahertz band is defined as the frequency range between 300 GHz and 3 THz [45, 46].”
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Angle-Based SLAM on 5G mmWave Systems: Design, Implementation, and Measurement
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“On the other hand, multipath angle parameters are strongly correlated with environmental geometry due to the sparsity of mmWave frequencies and the presence of specular reflections [19], [31], [32].”
BackgroundXu, Z., Ni, C., Cheng, Y., Dong, L., & Wu, L. (2023) · Nanomaterials · doi:10.3390/nano13121846 · Cited by 44
“Consequently, the technologies and applications derived from THz radiation have tremendous potential for development in several fields [1], such as biomedicine [2–4], astronomy [5], and nextgeneration wireless communications [6].”
BackgroundWang, J. X., Cao, Y., Che, W. Q., & Xue, Q. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2024.3361510 · Cited by 44
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BackgroundA Baseline Roadmap for Advanced Wireless Research Beyond 5G
Mourad, A., Yang, R. J., Lehne, P. H., & de la Oliva, A. (2020) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics9020351 · Cited by 44
“For the 5G LEVO, we extrapolate the MEVO target next to 1000 GHz (1 THz) in line with the active research interest in sub-THz communications detected in the wireless research community [5,6,13,14].”
BackgroundPlasmonics for Telecommunications Applications
Carvalho, W. O. F., & Mejía-Salazar, J. R. (2020) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s20092488 · Cited by 44
On End-to-End Intelligent Automation of 6G Networks
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BackgroundTHz Channel Sounding and Modeling Techniques: An Overview
Ghosh, A., & Kim, M. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3246161 · Cited by 45
“In addition, for a UM-MIMO configuration, the antenna structure can no longer be considered a point source; hence, the far-field assumption also becomes invalid [216].”
BackgroundInfluentialA versatile experimental testbed for ultrabroadband communication networks above 100 GHz
Sen, P., Ariyarathna, V., Madanayake, A., & Jornet, J. M. (2021) · Computer Networks · doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2021.108092 · Cited by 43
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BackgroundSelf-citationMicromachined Subterahertz Waveguide-Integrated Phase Shifter Utilizing Supermode Propagation
Zhao, X., Shah, U., Glubokov, O., & Oberhammer, J. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2021.3076079 · Cited by 43
Antenna With Embedded Die in Glass Interposer for 6G Wireless Applications
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“The sub-THz frequency range can provide very high capacity (100 Gb/s) [2] with the advantage of the wide frequency spectrum.”
BackgroundFinite Beam Depth Analysis for Large Arrays
Kosasih, A., & Björnson, E. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2024.3368013 · Cited by 42
“…(M-MIMO) in 5 G systems in sub-6 GHz and mm-wave bands [2], it is likely that even larger arrays (e.g., extremely large aperture arrays [3], [4] and holographic MIMO [5]) and wider spectrum at higher frequencies [6], [7] will be employed in the next generation of wireless systems [8], [9].”
BackgroundISAC Imaging by Channel State Information Using Ray Tracing for Next Generation 6G
Bazzi, A., Ying, M., Kanhere, O., Rappaport, T. S., & Chafii, M. (2025) · IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Electromagnetics Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/jsteap.2025.3605877 · Cited by 42
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Self-citationA vision of 6G – 5G's successor
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“compact on-chip/-package antennas and co-located electronic circuits, and the resultant performance improvements are essential for many wireless applications, such as 5G and 5G-beyond communication and sensing [40]–[43].”
BackgroundMachine Learning Techniques in Radio-over-Fiber Systems and Networks
He, J., Lee, J., Kandeepan, S., & Wang, K. (2020) · Photonics · doi:10.3390/photonics7040105 · Cited by 42
“In addition, due to the congestion of lower radio frequency (RF) band, higher RF spectral region has been explored, such as the millimeter-wave (mm-wave) region and the terahertz region [4,5].”
BackgroundNew Trends and Advancement in Next Generation Mobile Wireless Communication (6G): A Survey
Ali, S., Sohail, M. A., Shah, S. B. H., Koundal, D., Hassan, M. A., Abdollahi, A., & Khan, I. U. (2021) · Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing · doi:10.1155/2021/9614520 · Cited by 46
“A detailed survey on 6G based on terahertz communications is presented in [19], which summarizes different 6G technological advancements, design aspects of the transmitter-receiver, and several use cases.”
BackgroundA General 3D Non-Stationary 6G Channel Model With Time-Space Consistency
Huang, Z., Cheng, X., & Yin, X. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2022.3156615 · Cited by 42
Bhardwaj, P., & Zafaruddin, S. M. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2022.3205657 · Cited by 41
“3 to 3 THz) has a large unlicensed bandwidth to deliver massive data rates with low latency and improved security [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6].”
BackgroundTransmitarray and Reflectarray Antennas Based on a Magnetoelectric Dipole Antenna
Luk, K., & Xiang, B. J. (2023) · Electromagnetic Science · doi:10.23919/emsci.2022.0009 · Cited by 41
Compressed Channel Estimation for Near-Field XL-MIMO Using Triple Parametric Decomposition
Guo, X., Chen, Y., & Wang, Y. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2023.3279397 · Cited by 41
“Extremely large-scale multiple-input-multiple-output (XL-MIMO) is envisaged to serve as one of the foundations of the upcoming 6G wireless communication paradigm [1], which has the potential to facilitate a ten-fold improvement in spectral efficiency [2], [3].”
BackgroundTang, A., Wang, J.-B., Pan, Y., Zhang, W., Chen, Y., Yu, H., & de Lamare, R. C. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2023.3323681 · Cited by 41
“Consequently, the adoption of XL-MIMO technology, operating in high-frequency bands, has been considered a critical technology for future wireless communication networks [3].”
Chen, Y., Han, C. Z., Yu, Z., & Wang, G. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2023.3333222 · Cited by 41
“N EW spectral bands are required to support Terabit-per-second (Tbps) data rates for future wireless applications to accommodate the exponential growth of wireless data traffic [2], [3], [4].”
BackgroundCamera Based mmWave Beam Prediction: Towards Multi-Candidate Real-World Scenarios
Charan, G., Alrabeiah, M., Osman, T., & Alkhateeb, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2024.3506948 · Cited by 42
“Harvesting the large bandwidth available at the mmWave and sub-THz bands requires using narrow beams and overcoming their alignment challenge [2], [5].”
Self-citationCompact High-Gain Si-Imprinted THz Antenna for Ultrahigh Speed Wireless Communications
Zhu, S., Li, Y., Luk, K., & Pang, S. W. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2020.2986863 · Cited by 41
“Driven by the demands of the faster data rate toward terabit-per-second (Tb/s) for future 6G networks, communications systems working at the THz band are highly desirable [4].”
BackgroundWang, T., Zhang, H., Zhang, Y., & Cao, M. (2020) · Results in Physics · doi:10.1016/j.rinp.2020.103484 · Cited by 40
Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm Based Maximum Likelihood Detection
Cui, J., Xiong, Y., Ng, S. X., & Hanzo, L. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2022.3185287 · Cited by 47
Fastening the initial access in 5G NR sidelink for 6G V2X networks
Mizmizi, M., Linsalata, F., Brambilla, M., Morandi, F., Dong, K., Magarini, M., Nicoli, M., Khormuji, M. N., Wang, P., Pitaval, R.-A., et al. (2021) · Vehicular Communications · doi:10.1016/j.vehcom.2021.100402 · Cited by 40
“However, besides being resources-hungering, it limits the available scanning to only 64 beams, meaning that it can raise problems if the 6G trend of moving towards extremely high frequency communications, or sub-terahertz, and requiring highly-narrow beams will happen [63, 65].”
Industrial Metaverse: Connotation, Features, Technologies, Applications and Challenges
Zheng, Z., Li, T. K., Li, B., Chai, X., Song, W., Chen, N., Zhou, Y., Lin, Y., & Li, R. (2022) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-9198-1_19 · Cited by 40
Terahertz MIMO antenna array for future generation of wireless applications
Pant, R., & Malviya, L. (2024) · Frequenz · doi:10.1515/freq-2023-0203 · Cited by 40
Toward Virtualized Optical-Wireless Heterogeneous Networks
Vujičić, Z., Santos, M. C., Méndez, R., Klaiqi, B., Rodrı́guez, J., Gelabert, X., Rahman, M. A., & Gaudino, R. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3417358 · Cited by 40
Compact Metamaterial Based $4\times4$ Butler Matrix With Improved Bandwidth for 5G Applications
Vallappil, A. K., Rahim, M. K. A., Khawaja, B. A., & Iqbal, M. N. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.2966125 · Cited by 40
Measurements of Reflection and Penetration Losses in Low Terahertz Band Vehicular Communications
Петров, В. И., Eckhardt, J. M., Moltchanov, D., Koucheryavy, Y. A., & Kürner, T. (2020) · European Conference on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.23919/eucap48036.2020.9135389 · Cited by 40
“3 THz–1 THz) [1].”
Scattering and Roughness Analysis of Indoor Materials at Frequencies from 750 GHz to 1.1 THz
Sheikh, F., Zantah, Y., Mabrouk, I. B., Alissa, M., Barowski, J., Rolfes, I., & Kaiser, T. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2021.3076577 · Cited by 40
“terabit-per-second (Tb/s) wireless applications [1]–[5].”
A Review of Visible Light Communication LED Drivers
Teixeira, L., Loose, F., Alonso, J. M., Barriquello, C. H., Reguera, V. A., & Costa, M. A. D. (2021) · IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics · doi:10.1109/jestpe.2021.3092284 · Cited by 40
Neuhaus, P., Dörpinghaus, M., & Fettweis, G. P. (2021) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2021.3094927 · Cited by 40
140 GHz Urban Microcell Propagation Measurements for Spatial Consistency Modeling
Ju, S., & Rappaport, T. S. (2021) · International Conference on Communications · doi:10.1109/icc42927.2021.9500677 · Cited by 40
“wireless networks start operating at frequencies above 24 GHz, the spectrum above 100 GHz is being considered as a key feature of the sixth-generation (6G) wireless communication technologies due to vastly unused bandwidth of many tens of GHz [1].”
BackgroundSelf-citationA 0.31-THz Orbital-Angular-Momentum (OAM) Wave Transceiver in CMOS With Bits-to-OAM Mode Mapping
Khan, M. I. W., Woo, J., Yi, X., Ibrahim, M. I., Yazicigil, R. T., Chandrakasan, A. P., & Han, R. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2022.3141366 · Cited by 40
Line-of-Sight MIMO via Intelligent Reflecting Surface
Do, H., Lee, N., & Lozano, A. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2022.3224035 · Cited by 39
“1–10 THz, is arguably the next frontier in the evolution of wireless systems [1], [2], [3], with a comprehensive set of experiments at frequencies above 100 GHz being summarized in [4, Fig.”
BackgroundMobile near-field terahertz communications for 6G and 7G networks: Research challenges
Петров, В. И., Bodet, D. M., & Singh, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Communications and Networks · doi:10.3389/frcmn.2023.1151324 · Cited by 39
“While the phenomenon of THz radiation has long been exploited for imaging and sensing (Rappaport et al., 2019), using the THz band for communications was not widely explored until the 21st century (Elayan et al.”
BackgroundA reconfigurable graphene patch antenna inverse design at terahertz frequencies
Mashayekhi, M., Kabiri, P., Nooramin, A. S., & Soleimani, M. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-35036-4 · Cited by 39
Wong, K., Tong, K., & Chae, C. (2023) · IEEE Communications Letters · doi:10.1109/lcomm.2023.3284312 · Cited by 39
“There has also been strong interest about using the terahertz bands (≥100 GHz) in the being developed sixth-generation (6G) [1].”
BackgroundChannel Estimation for XL-RIS-Aided Millimeter-Wave Systems
Yu, X., Shen, W., Zhang, R., Xing, C., & Quek, T. Q. S. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2023.3286450 · Cited by 39
“For example, when a RIS array has 256 half-wavelength spacing elements working on 100GHz [22], the Rayleigh distance is almost 100 meters.”
UxNB-Enabled Cell-Free Massive MIMO With HAPS-Assisted Sub-THz Backhauling
Abbasi, O., & Yanıkömeroğlu, H. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2023.3347140 · Cited by 39
“In [13], the authors analyzed the link budget of the aerial platforms equipped with reconfigurable smart surfaces, and compared their communication performance with that of the terrestrial networks.”
BackgroundXu, H., Wu, J., Wang, Z. X., Shao, R., Yang, H. Q., & Cui, T. J. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-50482-y · Cited by 39
A Waveform Parameter Assignment Framework for 6G With the Role of Machine Learning
Yazar, A., & Arslan, H. (2020) · IEEE Open Journal of Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/ojvt.2020.2992502 · Cited by 40
“Challenges and opportunities for wireless communications and sensing applications above 100 GHz are provided in [81].”
BackgroundLarge-Scale Parameters of Spatio-Temporal Short-Range Indoor Backhaul Channels at 140 GHz
Nguyen, S. L. H., Haneda, K., Järveläineny, J., Karttuneny, A., & Putkonen, J. (2021) · IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference · doi:10.1109/vtc2021-spring51267.2021.9448958 · Cited by 39
“[7] provide mathematical modeling of scattering from a drywall.”
BackgroundGao, W., Han, C. Z., & Chen, Z. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2021.3098334 · Cited by 39
“wireless links, e.g., over 100 Gbps, which is regarded as an enabling technology for the next-generation communications systems [2].”
BackgroundDesign and Validation of the Phase-Compensated Long-Range Sub-THz VNA-Based Channel Sounder
Lyu, Y., Mbugua, A. W., Olesen, K., Kyösti, P., & Fan, W. (2021) · IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters · doi:10.1109/lawp.2021.3114626 · Cited by 39
Xu, G., & Skorobogatiy, M. A. (2022) · Journal of Infrared Millimeter and Terahertz Waves · doi:10.1007/s10762-022-00879-x · Cited by 41
3D printing technique and its application in the fabrication of THz fibers and waveguides
Xu, G., & Skorobogatiy, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Applied Physics · doi:10.1063/5.0146054 · Cited by 39
A Low-Loss Passive D-Band Phase Shifter for Calibration-Free, Precise Phase Control
Abbasi, M., & Lee, W. (2024) · IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits · doi:10.1109/jssc.2024.3357738 · Cited by 38
“To accommodate explosively increasing wireless data capacity beyond 5G and emerging sensing applications, the D -band frequency spectrum (110–170 GHz) has attracted considerable interest [7].”
Joint Visibility Region Detection and Channel Estimation for XL-MIMO Systems via Alternating MAP
Xu, W., Liu, A., Zhao, M., & Caire, G. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/tsp.2024.3479319 · Cited by 39
“High-frequency extremely large-scale multiple-input-multiple-output (XL-MIMO) has been widely considered as a key technology for future 6G communications [1].”
BackgroundFuture of Connectivity: A Comprehensive Review of Innovations and Challenges in 7G Smart Networks
Chamola, V., Peelam, M. S., Guizani, M., & Niyato, D. T. (2025) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2025.3560035 · Cited by 52
Cooperative SWIPT THz-NOMA/6G Performance Analysis
Oleiwi, H. W., & Al-Raweshidy, H. S. (2022) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics11060873 · Cited by 38
Constellation Design for Future Communication Systems: A Comprehensive Survey
Barrueco, J., Montalbán, J., Iradier, E., & Angueira, P. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3090774 · Cited by 37
Review and Perspectives of Micro/Nano Technologies as Key-Enablers of 6G
Iannacci, J., & Poor, H. V. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3176348 · Cited by 36
A Detailed Relevance Analysis of Enabling Technologies for 6G Architectures
Pivoto, D. G. S., Rezende, T. T., Facina, M. S. P., Moreira, R., Silva, F. D. O., Cardoso, K. V., Corrêa, S. L., Araujo, A. V. D., Silva, W. R. S. E., Neto, H. S., et al. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3301811 · Cited by 41
Demonstration of a Photonics-Aided 4600-m Wireless Transmission System in the Sub-THz Band
Wei, Y., Yu, J., Zhao, X., Yang, X., Wang, M., Li, W., Tian, P., Han, Y., Zhang, Q., Tan, J., et al. (2024) · Journal of Lightwave Technology · doi:10.1109/jlt.2024.3438156 · Cited by 37
“W ITH the advancement of technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), and multimedia communication services [1], 5G is expected to emerge as a foundational technology for future industrial and societal landscapes [2], [3], [4], [5].”
Security in 6G: The Prospects and the Relevant Technologies
Lu, Y. (2020) · Journal of Industrial Integration and Management · doi:10.1142/s2424862220500165 · Cited by 37
Terahertz Wireless Communications With Flexible Index Modulation Aided Pilot Design
Mao, T., & Wang, Z. (2021) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/jsac.2021.3071841 · Cited by 37
“To address this issue, high-gain directional antennas (or antenna arrays with beamforming) are often invoked to maintain both the coverage and the quality of THz signals [8], [10].”
Background6G Cloud-Native System: Vision, Challenges, Architecture Framework and Enabling Technologies
Li, Q., Ding, Z., Tong, X., Wu, G., Stojanovski, S., Luetzenkirchen, T., Kolekar, A., Bangolae, S., & Palat, S. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3205341 · Cited by 37
Metadata
- Authors
- Rappaport, T. S., Xing, Y., Kanhere, O., Ju, S., Madanayake, A., Mandal, S., Alkhateeb, A., & Trichopoulos, G. C.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Florida International University (US)
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Arizona State University (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- IEEE Access
- Published
- 2019
- Volume
- 7
- Pages
- 78729-78757
- ISSN
- 2169-3536 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2955897898
- Cited by
- 2,617
- References
- 155
- Citations by year
- 2026: 333 · 2025: 448 · 2024: 412 · 2023: 422 · 2022: 406 · 2021: 356 · 2020: 214 · 2019: 26
- FWCI
- 90.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- IEEE Access (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1702967, 1731290, 1902283, 1711395, 1854798, 1730946)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Antenna Design and Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Terahertz technology and applications
- Keywords
- terahertz communication, 6G, wireless sensing, wireless imaging, position location, smart antennas, beam steering, propagation models, channel modeling, spatial consistency, power efficiency, spectrum regulation
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