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Procrastination: self-regulation in initiating aversive goals.
Abstract
Procrastination is a common phenomenon that is easily recognised as one of the behaviours involved in not doing and avoiding work. However, work motivation theories have not devoted much attention to why people don’t do things at work. Just as the study of abnormal behaviour is used to understand normal behaviour, so can the study of procrastination enhance the understanding of self‐regulation. In this paper, procrastination is defined as the avoidance of the implementation of an intention. It is characterised by the avoidance of the intention and the preference for behaviour or thoughts that distract from the aversiveness of the intention. Individual difference variables, processes, and conditions are identified. Strategies to overcome procrastination are suggested.
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“Both schedules of reinforcement and sensitivity to delay are essential to comprehending procrastination, as the timing of the reward and the person's susceptibility to immediate gratification are assumed to be responsible for the delay of tasks and assignments (van Eerde, 2000).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as van Eerde, 2000
In the citing paper
“This is supported by evidence implying that a tendency to boredom is moderately correlated with procrastination (r = .40),while sensation seeking has a small correlation with procrastination (r = .17),suggesting that some individuals may be more responsive to boredom and may defer their commitments in order to become more motivated (van Eerde, 2000).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as van Eerde, 2000
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, cognitive interventions that specifically target irrational beliefs related to time management and goal setting have been proposed to promote more realistic performance judgments and the individual's engagement in goal-directed behaviors (van Eerde, 2000);”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as van Eerde, 2000
In the citing paper
“Treatment interventions intended to reduce procrastination often consist of several behavioral measures that increase automaticity, facilitate time management, and prevent the individual from becoming distracted while working on tasks and assignments (van Eerde, 2000).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as van Eerde, 2000
In the citing paper
“This is particularly important in terms of raising self-esteem and self-efficacy, both associated with procrastination (van Eerde, 2000).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as van Eerde, 2000
In the citing paper
“In other words, even though all variables are responsible for procrastination to some extent, their influence may vary owing to internal and external factors: some individuals procrastinate because insufficient value or nonexistent rewards are associated with the task, while others engage in procrastination related to their susceptibility to immediate gratification (Steel, 2007;van Eerde, 2000).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as van Eerde, 2000
In the citing paper
“As is well documented in the research literature over the past 40 years, such delays and diversions are related to personality factors, as for example impulsiveness and a preference for short-term gratification, deficiencies in planning and self-regulation, low self-efficacy, tiredness, and low energy, and task avoidance (van Eerde, 2000; Steel, 2007; Steel et al., 2018).”
From How Study Environments Foster Academic Procrastination: Overview and Recommendations (2020) · cites this paper as van Eerde, 2000
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“Procrastination refers to the postponement of a behavior that is experienced as emotionally unattractive, but cognitively important because it will lead to positive outcomes in the future (cf. Van Eerde, 2000 ).”
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“Treatment interventions intended to reduce procrastination often consist of several behavioral measures that increase automaticity, facilitate time management, and prevent the individual from becoming distracted while working on tasks and assignments (van Eerde, 2000).”
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“…delays and diversions are related to personality factors, as for example impulsiveness and a preference for short-term gratification, deficiencies in planning and self-regulation, low self-efficacy, tiredness, and low energy, and task avoidance (van Eerde, 2000; Steel, 2007; Steel et al., 2018).”
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“Within traditional procrastination research, procrastination is often regarded as a character trait or behavioral disposition that remains stable across time and contexts (e.g., Schouwenburg and Lay, 1995; Lay, 1997; van Eerde, 2000).”
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“This personality factor is positively related to anxiety, and anxiety is positively associated with procrastination (Roberts, 1995; Van Eerde, 2000).”
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“This understanding of procrastination implies that internal norms and cognitive-affective evaluations of delay play an important role in identifying procrastination (Milgram & Naaman, 1996; van Eerde, 2000).”
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“Some results suggest that procrastination is linked to genetic and personality traits, such as impulsivity [25,26], while others suggest that procrastination is a consequence of the characteristics of the task being put off, such as perceived attractiveness or difficulty [27,28].”
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“…links between procrastination and personality variables such as impulsivity and neuroticism (Ferrari, 1993; Schouwenburg & Lay, 1995; Steel, 2007; van Eerde, 2000) that have also been identified as substantial predictors of psychopathology (Hink et al., 2013; Johnson, Carver, & Joormann, 2013).”
BackgroundEntrepreneurial Intentions: Moving the Field Forwards
Donaldson, C., Liñán, F., & Alegre, J. (2021) · The Journal of Entrepreneurship · doi:10.1177/0971355720974801 · Cited by 36
“This period of lack of exposure could be classified as a form of procrastination, defined as ‘the avoidance of the implementation of an intention’ (Van Eerde, 2000, p. 374), whereby perceived lack of capability is interpreted as a threat to goal achievement.”
BackgroundShepherd, D. A., & Patzelt, H. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71782-1_5 · Cited by 44
The Czech Validation of the Self-regulation Questionnaire
Gavora, P., Jakešová, J., & Kalenda, J. (2015) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.113 · Cited by 38
“…Carey, Carnrike & Meisler, 1990; Chassin & De Lucia, 1996; Wills, Sandy & Yaeger, 2002), drug use (Baumeister & Heatherton, 2009), procrastination (Eerde, 2000; Senécal & Vallerand, 1995; Motiea, Heidaria & Sadeghic, 2012), students´ high rates of drop-out and truancy (Veenstra, Lindenberg,…”
An ego identity perspective on volitional action: Identity status, agency, and procrastination
Shanahan, M. J., & Pychyl, T. A. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.02.013 · Cited by 31
Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D., Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01103 · Cited by 37
The mystery of “should”: Procrastination, delay, and reactance in academic settings
Malatincová, T. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.08.015 · Cited by 30
Clercq, D. D., Fatima, T., & Jahanzeb, S. (2021) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2021.1928076 · Cited by 34
“The findings thus highlight the risk of a counterproductive spiral: Employees suffering from cronyism in organizational decision making become slackers, which may generate even more hardships, in the form of negative performance evaluations (Van Eerde, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialBeing in the moment later? Testing the inverse relation between mindfulness and procrastination
Cheung, R. Y. M., & Ng, M. C. Y. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.12.015 · Cited by 33
Empower, not impose!—Preventing academic procrastination
Hoppe, J. D., Prokop, P., & Rau, R. (2018) · Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community · doi:10.1080/10852352.2016.1198172 · Cited by 31
“Research on preventing procrastination in academic settings is primarily focused on procrastination as a personality trait or selfregulation failure (Schouwenburg, 2004; van Eerde, 2000) and most of it is limited to self-help literature (Owens, Bowman, & Dill, 2008).”
BackgroundCan, S., & Zeren, Ş. G. (2019) · Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University AVESIS · doi:10.14812/cufej.544325 · Cited by 24
Czech Validation of the Self-regulation and Self-efficacy Questionnaires for Learning
Jakešová, J., Gavora, P., Kalenda, J., & Vávrová, S. (2016) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.02.092 · Cited by 23
Predicting Homework Distraction at the Secondary School Level: A Multilevel Analysis
Xu, J. (2010) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811011200705 · Cited by 23
“One theoretical approach that taps into distraction is self-regulated learning, particularly from the perspective of volitional control (Boekaerts & Corno, 2005; Corno, 1994, 2001, 2004; Heckhausen & Kuhl, 1985; Kuhl, 1984, 2000; Van Eerde, 2000; Winne, 2004; Wolters, 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialAsri, D. N., Setyosarı, P., Hitipeuw, I., & Chusniyah, T. (2017) · American Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12691/education-5-1-14 · Cited by 32
“In addition, Eerde’s research [9] states that an academic procrastination behavior shows a lack of self-regulation, such as the use of strategies and monitor the learning process, and tend to avoid tasks.”
BackgroundIt ain’t my business: a coping perspective on employee effortful security behavior
Xu, Z., & Guo, K. H. (2019) · Journal of Enterprise Information Management · doi:10.1108/jeim-10-2018-0229 · Cited by 22
Clercq, D. D., Haq, I. U., & Azeem, M. U. (2021) · British Journal of Management · doi:10.1111/1467-8551.12573 · Cited by 23
van Hooft, E. A. J., & van Mierlo, H. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00464 · Cited by 23
“That is, procrastination typically represents an avoidant coping style to handle difficult or otherwise aversive tasks and situations (Van Eerde, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialZhou, M., & Kam, C. C. S. (2017) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2017.1293801 · Cited by 31
“It has been studied as a trait variable, along with other traits, such as motives, affect and personality in past literature (Van Eerde, 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialMa, Z., Song, L.-P., & Huang, J. (2023) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-11-2022-1327 · Cited by 22
Supporting Undergraduate Biology Students’ Academic Success: Comparing Two Workshop Interventions
Hensley, L. C., Kulesza, A. E., Peri, J., Brady, A. C., Wolters, C. A., Sovic, D. M., & Breitenberger, C. A. (2021) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.21-03-0068 · Cited by 24
“To counteract being overwhelmed and not knowing where to start, students learned to translate their running list of all tasks into a manageable set of daily objectives, with a focus on identifying their top three tasks each day and working on the top priority task first (Van Eerde, 2000).”
BackgroundThe effects of group size and task complexity on deadline reactivity
Kim, J.-E., Nembhard, D. A., & Kim, J. H. (2016) · International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2016.09.011 · Cited by 20
Sagone, E., & Indiana, M. L. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11060300 · Cited by 28
“The most famous measures applied to assess procrastination are represented by the General Procrastination Scale [37], the Adult Inventory of Procrastination [38], the Decisional Procrastination Scale [39], the Tuckman Procrastination Scale [40], and the Procrastination Assessment Scale for Students [41].”
MethodInfluentialWork and affective outcomes of social media use at work: a daily-survey study
Wang, B., Liao, Y., Chen, M., Zhang, L., & Qian, J. (2021) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2021.2012711 · Cited by 23
“Workplace procrastination is usually manifested as the preferences for behaviors or thoughts that distract individuals’ attention from the core task (Van Eerde, 2000).”
BackgroundProcrastination and physical activity: The moderated mediating effect of grit
Tao, Y., Yu, H., Liu, M., Wang, P., Zhang, J., Yang, Y., & Xin, T. (2022) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2022.2068962 · Cited by 25
“27,28 Although the investigation of lacking PA was potentially informative, procrastination was a complex process involving various contextual and individual influences.”
BackgroundBäulke, L., & Dresel, M. (2023) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2023.2219873 · Cited by 26
“Specific course characteristics as determinants of academic procrastination So far, there have been two main theoretical approaches to situational characteristics associated with procrastination, namely the approaches of Svartdal et al. (2020) and Van Eerde (2000).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEndrejat, P. C., Meinecke, A. L., & Kauffeld, S. (2019) · Journal of Change Management · doi:10.1080/14697017.2019.1620826 · Cited by 18
“Study 1: Reducing Procrastination Procrastination is ‘the avoidance of the implementation of an intention’ (Van Eerde, 2000, p. 374).”
BackgroundZika-Viktorsson, A., & Ingelgård, A. (2006) · Research in Engineering Design · doi:10.1007/s00163-006-0019-1 · Cited by 18
Regulation of Motivation: Students’ Motivation Management in Online Collaborative Groupwork
Xu, J., & Du, J. (2013) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811311501006 · Cited by 18
“Regulation of motivation is frequently discussed under the general heading of volitional control (Boekaerts & Corno, 2005; Corno, 1994, 2001, 2004; Corno & Kanfer, 1993; Husman, McCann, & Crowson, 2000; Kuhl, 1984, 2000; Van Eerde, 2000; Winne, 2004; Wolters, 2003).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Van Eerde, W.
- Venue
- Applied Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2000-07
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 372-389
- ISSN
- 0269-994X (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0597
- OpenAlex
- W2102016090
- Cited by
- 231
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 2.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Applied Psychology (publishedVersion)
- TU/e Research Portal (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Grit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- procrastination, self-regulation, employee motivation, avoidance behavior, distraction, individual differences
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