Neuropsychological profiles of adolescents with ADHD: effects of reading difficulties and gender

“We consider rapid naming relevant to ADHD, given that such difficulties are also found in participants with ADHD, even in the absence of learning disability (LD; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002 ).”

“and schizophrenia) (Weinberger et al., 1986; Park and Holzman, 1992; Purcell et al., 1998; Cohen et al., 1999; Merriam et al., 1999; Rucklidge and Tannock, 2002; Stevens et al., 2002; Channon et al., 2003).”

“% ADHD-C ADHD Diagnostic method SES Eth S A Edu IQ O Schachar et al. (2007) 173 9.”

“Nomita Chhabildas”

“Both the Digit Span subtest individually and the FDI have been used as measures of verbal working memory in children and adolescents with reading disabilities and ADHD (Mehta, Goodyer, & Sahakian, 2004; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“…ADHD on continuous performance and go no-go tasks (Kuntsi & Stevenson, 2001; Nigg, 2001; Rubia, Oosterlaan, Sergeant, Brandeis, & van Leeuwen, 1998; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Scheres, Oosterlaan, & Sergeant, 2001; Slusarek, Velling, Bunk, & Eggers, 2001; van der Meere & Stermerdink, 1998; van der…”

“…compare different types of stimuli (e.g., numbers, symbols, patterns), is important for understanding child and adolescent cognitive development (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Stenneken et al., 2011), cognitive aging (Salthouse, 2000), and is also predictive of real-world outcomes, such as job…”

“These results replicate and extend previous analyses by our group and others (Rucklidge and Tannock 2002; Semrud-Clikeman, Guy, Griffin, and Hynd 2000; Shanahan et al. 2006; Willcutt, Pennington, Olson, Chhabildas, and Hulslander 2005), and provide strong support for the hypothesis that slow…”

“In fact, executive function deficits have been demonstrated in children with dyslexia (Purvis & Tannock, 2000; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Willcutt et al., 2001) and subtle deficits in verbal storage and verbal central executive domains were found in ADHD subjects (Martinussen & Tannock, 2006).”

“Previous experimental (Lambek et al., 2011; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Toplak, Rucklidge, Hetherington, John, & Tannock, 2003; Willcutt et al., 2001) and meta-analytic (Martinussen et al., 2005; Willcutt et al., 2005) reviews have adopted this rationale to examine the difference between tasks that…”

“Furthermore, those with ADHD (McInerney and Kerns 2003; McInnes et al. 2003; Rucklidge and Tannock 2002; Seidman et al. 1997) the obese (Gunstad et al. 2007; Maayan et al. 2011), and pathological gamblers (e.g., Leiserson and Pihl 2007; Roca et al. 2008) also have impaired working memory.”

“89 (Goldberg et al., 2005; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“In eight studies, the effect sizes were around zero (Golden & Golden, 2002; Houghton et al., 1999; Nigg, Blaskey, Huang- Pollock, & Rappley, 2002; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Seidman et al., 1997; Seidman, Biederman, Monuteaux, Weber, & Faraone, 2000; Seidman, Biederman, Monuteaux, Doyle, & Faraone,…”

“A few previous studies have reported sex differences in EF in children with ADHD [67,68] though most studies report similar EF profiles [11,20].”

“…Hinshaw, Carte, Sami, Treuting, & Zupan, 2002; Nigg, Blaskey, Huang-Pollock, & Rappley, 2002; Seidman et al., 2005; Sami, Carte, Hinshaw, & Zupan, 2003), although two studies have reported greater EF impairments in boys than in girls with ADHD (Newcorn et al., 2001; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2001).”

“Although a number of studies have not found evidence for gender differences in executive functioning (Gershon, 2002b; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002), there have been several studies where differences have been noted.”

“It has been suggested that children with ADHD and RD show the impairments associated with ADHD as well as those associated with RD (e.g., Nigg et al., 1998; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Willcutt et al., 2005).”

“Rucklidge and Tannock (2002), using a clinic-recruited sample,”

“…Department of Clinical Neuropsychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands H. J. Duivenvoorden Department of Medical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands 2002; Rucklidge and Tannock 2002; van der Schoot et al. 2000).”

“…thus a promising candidate for a neuropsychological deficit in ADHD that can contribute uniquely to reading difficulties (Denckla & Cutting, 1999; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Willcutt, Pennington et al., 2005), particularly as it may influence efficiency of reading fluency among those who can…”

“Findings of RT differences have been mixed however; some authors suggesting no overall difference but more erratic or variable RT in individuals with ADHD (Berwid et al., 2005; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“Heritable endophenotypes linked to the biological basis of ADHD may therefore be useful targets because the genes they share with ADHD may have a greater effect on the endophenotype than on the disorder itself and may therefore be easier to detect.”

“It would also be useful to include standardized measures of learning outcomes as a covariate given the co-occurrence of reading difficulties in those with SLI (Flax, Realpe-Bonilla, Hirsch, Brzustowicz, Bartlett, & Tallal, 2003) and ADHD (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“…growth in reading (Morgan, Farkas, & Hibel, 2008); behavior (Ryan, Reid, & Epstein, 2004); IQ-discrepancy and reading disability (Share & Silva, 2003); executive function (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002); and academic achievement, visual-motor abilities, and mathematical reasoning (Vogel, 1990).”

“It has been shown to distinguish individuals with impaired inhibitory control from healthy controls (Lijffijt et al., 2005; Rucklidge and Tannock, 2002).”

“…functions of phonemic deletion and verbal working memory, in accordance with numerous studies (e.g., Stanovich, 1988; Swanson, 1996; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002), in the ADHD groups (ADHD and ADHD + RD) no associations with linguistic functions are shown for word decoding accuracy,…”

“…comparable with those of boys, regarding inhibition (Houghton et al., 1999; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002), cognitive flexibility (Houghton et al., 1999; Seidman et al., 2005), planification (Houghton et al., 1999), working memory (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002), and attention (Seidman et al., 2005).”

“They also failed to provide support for the ‘cognitive subtype’ hypothesis (e.g., de Jong et al., 2006; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002) because children with dyslexia+AS exhibited neither different, nor more severe, deficits than children with either pure condition.”

“This may have been an artefact of subject selection: most later studies with larger samples found that the comorbid group exhibited the deficits of both single groups in an additive fashion (Rucklidge & Tannock , 2002; Willcutt et al. , 2003).”

“…been reported in children with ADHD (Carte, Nigg, & Hinshaw, 1996; Houghton et al. 1999; Semrud-Clikeman, Guy., Griffin, & Hynd, 2000; Tannock, Martinussen, & frijters, 2000; Willcutt et al., 2001), adolescents with ADHD (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002) and in adults with ADHD (Corbett & Stanczak 1999).”

“Finally, eight studies reported no change in mean RT, but differences in RT variability (Jennings et al. 1997; McInerney and Kerns 2003; Nigg 1999; Pliszka et al. 2000; Rucklidge and Tannock 2002; Schachar and Logan 1990; Stevens et al. 2002; Willcutt et al. 2005).”

“…ıguez P erez et al. (2009) 40 11.4 100.4 124 10.9 109.6 0.873 0.504 1.242 Rosenthal et al. (2006) – ADHD-C 28 11.4 102.0 27 11.5 109.5 0.693 0.147 1.238 Rosenthal et al. (2006) – ADHD-I 12 12.4 95.8 27 11.5 109.5 –.301 –.984 0.383 Rucklidge and Tannock (2002) 35 15.2 102.2 37 14.9 111.0…”

“Finally, a few studies have shown that poor response inhibition in children with reading disability is not explained by comorbid ADHD (Purvis & Tannock, 2000; Willcutt, Pennington, Olson, Chhabildas, & Huslander, 2005; but see Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Willcutt et al., 2001).”

“Specifically, we allowed VC, PA, PS, and NS to predict reading; VC, PO, VWM, and PS to predict math; and VC, PO, PS, and Inhibition to predict attention.”

“Children with ADHD often show sensory deficits including sensorimotor [166,167], somatosensory [168], visual [171] and auditory [172–175] processing impairments.”

“However, not all studies have found reduced CE functioning in ADHD, at least when tasks are verbal in nature (Pallas, 2003; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Willcutt et al., 2001).”

“Similarly, clinical studies have shown that ADHD children are more likely to be from low social class families than healthy controls [21,22].”

“Several studies have shown that girls with ADHD, like boys, show weak cognitive control (Castellanos et al., 2000; Rucklidge and Tannock, 2002; Seidman et al., 2005).”

“…Rubia, 2002; Tannock, Martinussen, & Frijters, 2000; Willcutt, Pennington, et al., 2005); attention, auditory working memory (De Jong et al., 2009; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Tridas, 2007; Willcutt et al., 2003), response inhibition (De Jong et al., 2009; Purvis & Tannock, 2000; Willcutt et al.,…”

“Rucklidge and Tannock (2002) also did not find significant differences in diagnosed rates of non-ADHD psychiatric disorders or in overall impairment as rated by parents or teachers.”

“Rucklidge and Tannock (2002) found that boys with ADHD showed slower processing speed than girls with ADHD, while Newcorn and colleagues (2001) found that girls with ADHD made fewer impulsivity errors than boys with ADHD on a continuous performance task.”

“These findings add to the growing literature linking color-naming deficits, overall slow reaction times, and processing speed deficits with ADHD (e.g., Nigg, Hinshaw, Carte, & Treuting, 1998; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“Although no theoretical models of ADHD explicitly propose slow cognitive processing speed as the primary neuropsychological weakness in ADHD, deficits in this domain are among the most robust predictors of ADHD symptoms (Rucklidge and Tannock, 2002; Willcutt et al., 2005).”

“These findings provide additional data, making apparent the need for more research on how ADHD should be measuredandconceptualized (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“…reading achievement had on the results indicates the need to investigate road-crossing behaviors in other psychiatric groups, particularly in children with reading disabilities, given that they are known to have cognitive deficits not dissimilar to the ADHD population (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“C=23 Rucklidge and Tannock (2002) ADHD=59 - .72 .31 - .65 - - - - - -”

“It is well-established that ADHD is comorbid with RD at a rate estimated at 25–40% (Rucklidge and Tannock 2002; Willcutt and Pennington 2000) and SSD is comorbid with RD at approximately the same rate (25–30%) (Gallagher et al.”

“Deficits include poor motor control and working memory (Barkley 1997a; Barkley 1997b), difficulties with time perception (Toplak et al 2003), difficulties with inhibiting or delaying behavioral responses (Barkley 1997a; Nigg 1999), and on-going processing and naming speed deficits (Rucklidge and Tannock 2002; Semrud-C…”

“…for colours on various rapid naming tasks (e.g., the Rapid Automatized Naming Test, the Stroop-Colour-Word Test), but tend not to exhibit slower naming of letters, words, or digits (e.g., Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Tannock, Martinssen, & Frijters, 2000; van Mourik, Oosterlaan, & Sergeant, 2005).”

“Such observations have been reported in autism[34,74,78,80,100,147] , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder[36,101,109,131,164] , substance dependence [14], and schizophrenia [14,19,50,76,153] and deserve further detailed investigation in a developmental framework where age of the individual and gender are crucial…”

“…comorbid RD–ADHD as a unique third disorder distinct from either condition in isolation that is due at least in part to etiological factors that are different from those that increase susceptibility to ADHD or RD separately (Katz, Brown, Roth, & Beers, 2011; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“Evidently, this finding does not correspond with the cognitive subtype hypothesis ( Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002 ).”

“In addition, a number of studies have found a significant relationship between RTSD, but not RTmean, and ADHD diagnosis (Nigg, 1999; Jennings, van der Molen, Pelham, Debski, & Hoza, 1997; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“…is associated with a broad range of developmental psychopathologies including attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; Barkley, 1997a, 1997b; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Shanahan, Pennington, & Willcutt, 2008), conduct disorder (Herba, Tranah, Rubia, & Yule, 2006; Rubia et al., 2008), and…”

“…et al., 1988), and aming speed tasks indicating poor LH function in ADHD (Brock Christo, 2003; Nigg, Butler, Huang-Pollock, & Henderson, 2002; ucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Semrud-Clikeman, Guy, Griffin, & Hynd, 000; Stevens, Quittner, Zuckerman, & Moore, 2002; Tannock, artinussen, & Frijters,…”

“…includes processing speed deficits as indexed by slower naming of colors, letters, numbers, and objects (Brock & Christo, 2003; Nigg et al., 2002; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Semrud-Clikeman, Guy, Griffin, & Hynd, 2000; Stevens et al., 2002; Tannock, Martinussen, & Frijters, 2000; Weiler,…”

“…2005; Willcutt, Doyle, Nigg, Faraone, & Pennington, 2005), sustained attention (Barkley, 1997; Bellgrove, Hawi, Gill, & Robertson, 2006), and processing speed (Chhabildas, Pennington, & Willcutt, 2001; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Willcutt, Pennington, Olson, Chhabildas, & Hulslander, 2005).”

“In addition to the specific reading difficulties that are the core feature of reading disability (RD), children and adolescents with RD are at significantly higher risk for a range of additional behavioral and emotional difficulties (e.g., Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Willcutt & Pennington, 2000a, b).”

“Both KSADS and DISC are based on DSM-IV diagnostic criteria and are commonly used to assess for ADHD diagnoses (Nigg, 1999; Rucklidge and Tannock, 2002).”

“It is noteworthy, however, that deficits on the Stroop task are not specific to ADHD and have also been found in children with reading disability ( Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002 ; Barkley et al, 1992 ).”

“On one hand, studies comparing a group of individuals with disabilities to a nondisabled group often find a statistically significant group difference (e.g., Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Weiler, Bernstein, Bellinger, & Waber, 2000).”