Neuropsychological profiles of adolescents with ADHD: effects of reading difficulties and gender

“[39,47]) in the response inhibition literature.”

“…Verte, Oosterlaan, Roeyers, & Sergeant, 2004; Oovertoom et al., 2002; Rubia et al., 1998, Rubia, Taylor, et al., 2001; Rubia, Smith, & Taylor, 2005; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002), a meta-analysis of studies employing the Stop task indicated no differences in performance among the various disruptive…”

“…deficits in children with ADHD (e.g., Barkley, 1997a), the empirical literature regarding such deficits has been characterized by inconsistency (e.g., Adams & Snowling, 2001; Barnett et al., 2001; Karatekin & Asarnow, 1998; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Willcutt et al., 2001).”

“Rucklidge and Tannock (2002), for example, reported greater impairment among boys (vs. girls) with ADHD on tests of response inhibition and processing speed.”

“…divided into verbal and visuospatial components, verbal WM deficits are more often associated with RD than with ADHD (Martinussen and Tannock 2006; Rucklidge and Tannock 2002; Swanson et al. 1999; Willcutt et al. 2001); whereas visuospatial WM deficits are more pronounced in ADHD than RD,…”

“Specifically, impairments in color naming have been reported in children with ADHD (Houghton et al. 1999; Semrud-Clikeman et al. 2000; Tannock et al. 2000; Willcutt et al. 2001), in adolescents with ADHD (Rucklidge and Tannock 2002), and in adults with ADHD (Corbett and Stanczak 1999).”

“Reading disorder is primarily associated with linguistic problems, like impairments in phonological processing and slower serial naming speed (Pennington, Groisser, & Welsh, 1993; Purvis & Tannock, 2000; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Semrud-Clikeman, Guy, Griffin, & Hynd, 2000; Willcutt et al., 2001).”

“Relative to typically-developing peers, youth with ADHD—particularly the inattentive or combined presentations—have been found to demonstrate slower cognitive processing speed (Chhabildas et al. 2001; Jacobson et al. 2011; Rucklidge and Tannock 2002; Willcutt et al. 2005) and slowed motor reaction time (Lee et al.”

“Interestingly, slower naming in RAN is also characteristic of individuals with ADHD who have no phonological deficits (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“Rucklidge and Tannock (2002) suggest that obtaining a finding that two disorders are associated with different cognitive deficits will provide support for the external validity of the disorder.”

“Keywords: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder; Reading disorder; Processing speed; Working memory; Neuropsychological assessment and cognition”

“Rucklidge and Tannock (2002) observed that the comorbid group was significantly slower than the DD-only and ADHD-only groups on measures of naming speed and reaction times, providing some support for this hypothesis.”

“As language impairment has been linked both to ADHD and to a reduced performance in WM tasks (Martinussen & Tannock, 2006; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Willcutt, Pennington, Olson, Chhabildas, & Hulslander, 2005) and group differences were found in the present sample, separate analyses of covariance…”

“…involves linguistic processing speed deficits, implicating poor LH function (Brock & Christo, 2003; Nigg, Butler, Huang-Pollock, & Henderson, 2002; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Semrud-Clikeman, Guy, Griffin, & Hynd, 2000; Stevens, Quittner, Zuckerman, & Moore, 2002; Tannock, Martinussen, &…”

“…comorbid reading disorders involves linguistic-processing speed deficits (Brock & Christo, 2003; Nigg, Butler, Huang-Pollock, & Henderson, 2002; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Semrud-Clikeman, Guy, Griffin, & Hynd, 2000; Stevens, Quittner, Zuckerman, & Moore, 2002; Tannock, Martinussen, &…”

“However, IIV-RT has been shown to be related to both inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms (66, 67).”

“…and more pervasive and severe negative social and occupational outcomes than children with either disorder alone (Purvis & Tannock, 2000; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Seidman, Biederman, Monuteaux, Doyle, & Faraone, 2001; Willcutt et al., 2010; Willcutt, Doyle, Nigg, Faraone, &…”

“It is likely that the vulnerability of the myelination process to genetic and environmental insults underlies our brain’s unique susceptibility to developmental disorders such as autism, learning disabilities, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), schizophrenia, and addiction, as well as contributing to the…”

“Similarly, several studies have found that in comparison to the group with RD alone, the comorbid group exhibited more severe neurocognitive weaknesses, were more likely to experience negative academic and social outcomes, and may be less likely to respond to interventions (eg, Purvis & Tannock, 2000 ; Rabiner & Malon…”

“The lowest scores found were for the freedom from distractibility and processing speed indices, reflecting working memory and cognitive speed, this, too, is in line with other reports (4,13).”

“Although it has been a method used in other studies (e.g., Berman et al., 1999; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002), only assays could confirm whether the medication was definitively eliminated.”

“However, working memory deficits are also welldocumented in RD children (Cohen et al., 2000; Korkman & Pesonen, 1994; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Willcutt et al., 2001).”

“It was not possible to examine eVects of comorbid conditions and gender, which may be related to inhibitory deWcits (Manassis et al. 2000; Newcorn et al. 2001; Nigg et al. 2002; Rucklidge and Tannock 2002 ), or individual diVerences in ability to beneWt from manipulations.”

“That has been demonstrated with several neuropsychological tests including the Stroop- (deHaas, 1986; Rucklidge and Tannock, 2002) and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (Houghton et al., 1999; Seidman et al., 2005) as well as with various versions of the CPT (Breen, 1989; Schuerholz et al., 1998; Sharp…”

“…van Mourik et al., 2005) has not been uniform, yet the Stroop task is widely used empirically as an aid in clinical diagnosis (Golden, 1976; Seidman et al., 1997; Katz et al., 1998; Bedard et al., 2002; Nigg et al., 2002; Rucklidge and Tannock, 2002; Schmitz et al., 2002; Shallice et al., 2002).”

“…characteristics such as: slow naming speed (Bedard, Ickowicz, & Tannock, 2002; Brock & Christo, 2003; Nigg, Blaskey, Huang-Pollock, & Rappley, 2002; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Semrud-Clikeman, Guy, Griffin, & Hynd, 2000; Tannock, Martinussen, & Frijters, 2000; van Mourik, Oosterlaan, & Sergeant,…”

“…have difficulties in phonological processing (Bental & Tirosh, 2007; van Mourik et al., 2005) or achievement (Ghelani, Sidhu, Jain, & Tannock, 2004; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Shanahan et al., 2006; Tannock, Martinussen, & Frijters, 2000), they as a group are usually better than those with a…”

“However, Rucklidge & Tannock [58] have found ISV to be the best predictor of both inattentive and hyperactive/ impulsive symptoms.”

“…and dyslexia (see Willcutt, 2018); the comorbidity of dyslexia and hyperactivity could be due to a distinct heavy disorder characterized by the presence of difficulties several cognitive process as working memory, rapid naming and speed processing (Katz et al., 2011; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“ADHD: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. cba Chinese Medical Journal ¦ August 20, 2016 ¦ Volume 129 ¦ Issue 16 1925 distractibility factor of the WISC.”

“Alternatively, it has been proposed that co-morbid ADHD and dyslexia could be characterized by a unique “cognitive subtype” (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; see de Jong et al., 2006 for a discussion) in which cognitive deficits are different, or more severe, than those apparent in either ADHD or…”

“Those studies that do exist are limited in that many were accomplished with earlier versions of the WISC (Cheung et al., 2012; Chhabildas, Pennington, & Willcutt, 2001; Moura et al., 2014; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Shanahan et al., 2006; Willcutt, Pennington, Olson, Chhabildas, & Hulslander, 2005).”

“Students with ADHD and RD need more intensive support to make adequate gains in literacy as this group presents as more clinically impaired (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“…Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) Processing Speed subtests (Chhabildas, Pennington, & Willcutt, 2001; Jacobson et al., 2011; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Willcutt, Doyle, Nigg, Faraone, & Pennington, 2005); (b) “naming speed,” as measured by rapid automatized naming tasks…”

“…the same ADHD rating scale among children in China (Tong et al., 2016, 2018) as well as some international studies that have found that parental education, particularly maternal education, is not significantly correlated with ADHD (Breen, 1989; Rucklidge and Tannock, 2002; Russell et al., 2015).”

“(Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“A number of studies report updating (working memory) impairments in dyslexia (Brosnan et al., 2002; Rucklidge and Tannock, 2002; McGee et al., 2004; Willcutt et al., 2005; Bental and Tirosh, 2007; Smith-Spark and Fisk, 2007), while others do not (Willcutt et al.”

“N IH -PA Author M anuscript N IH -PA Author M anuscript N IH -PA Author M anuscript perception abilities and reading fluency on interference liability (Albrecht, et al., 2008; Lansbergen, et al., 2007; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; van Mourik, et al., 2005).”

“Group differences between unaffected siblings of youth with ADHD and controls across each domain were first examined as the primary endophenotype test for ADHD.”

“Similar to ADHD, individuals with RD also show impairments in multiple domains of cognitive functions including verbal WM [11–16], RTV [11,17–19] and processing speed [16,20,21].”

“…and posits that co-morbid groups in fact represent a third disorder that is due to either etiological factors that are distinct relative to those related to each disorder alone (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002) or to common factors that increase susceptibility to both disorders (Willcutt et al., 2003a).”

“In contrast to the above studies, some recent findings have implicated left hemisphere dysfunction in child and adolescent ADHD samples showing that linguistic impairments, including difficulty with semantic processing, are contributing factors [8,18–24].”

“of automatized rapid naming and working memory that are linked specifically to the comorbid status.(8,9) Administration of methylphenidate is one of the primary treatment approaches for ADHD.”

“A deficient articulatory rehearsal mechanism also was expected because (a) children with ADHD exhibit a slower overt articulation rate relative to typically developing children (Rapport et al. 2008b; Rucklidge and Tannock 2002), which predicts decreased articulatory rehearsal proficiency (Hitch et al.”

“In contrast to the findings of Rucklidge and Tannock (2002) and Bental and Tirosh (2007), no evidence was found here for a distinct profile of rapid naming impairments in comorbid ADHD+RD group.”

“561 In terms of sex differences on WM tasks, the current results are in line with findings in clinical 562 ADHD populations (for example, Castellanos et al., 2000; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“The psychologist also used the Global Assessment of Functioning(30) (GAF), a numeric scale (1-100) used by mental health clinicians and doctors to rate the general functioning of adults; the Young Mania Rating Scale(31) (YMRS), an 11 item scale administered by a trained clinician who assigns a severity rating for each…”

“However, children who suffer from ADHD and reading disabilities (i.e., children with an ADHD + RD comorbidity) exhibit more severe deficits in all domains than do children with only ADHD (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“In previous research, many authors have used a cutoff score of 90 on achievement tests as indicating LD (Fletcher et al., 1994; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002b; Shaywitz et al., 1992).”

“…difficulties and more negative long-term life consequences than students with either disorder alone (Boada et al., 2012; Purvis & Tannock, 2000; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Seidman, Biederman, Monuteaux, Doyle, & Faraone, 2001; Wei et al., 2014; Willcutt et al., 2010, 2007; Willcutt, Doyle,…”

“The cognitive subtype hypothesis suggests that children with both ADHD and RD have a different or more severe form of ADHD or RD than children with either disorder alone (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“Extant metaanalytic (Martinussen et al., 2005; Willcutt et al., 2005) and experimental (Lambek et al., 2011; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Toplak, Rucklidge, Hetherington, John, & Tannock, 2003) studies that reveal significant heterogeneity in between-groups effect sizes and inconsistent WM…”

“According to the “cognitive subtype” hypothesis (c.f. Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002) or the “three independent disorders model” (Neale & Kendler, 1995), RDMD represents a separate disorder group with a cognitive profile that is distinct from the profile of the isolated RD and MD groups.”

“Content analysis technique consists of three main stages: (1) pre-analysis – organizing materials to systematize initial ideas, demarcating what will be used, formulating hypotheses and goals, and finally compiling indicators to be analyzed; (2) exploration of material – categories are defined by coding and identifyin…”

“…with ADHD− to have poor reading achievement, or poor recognition of familiar real words (assessed on word identification subtests) or unfamiliar nonwords (pseudowords or nonsense words assessed on word attack subtests; Keulers et al., 2007; Marzocchi et al., 2008; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“Thus, there is considerable heterogeneity in the realm of spelling in ADHD (as has previously been found with neuropsychological and reading literacy assessments in this population; e.g., Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002).”

“Furthermore, poor results on such tests have been related to both behavioural [3–5] and emotional disorders [6–8].”

“While rapid-naming deficits have been primarily observed in RD, recent investigations have identified slowed naming among children with ADHD who do not have basic reading difficulties (Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002; Wodka, Simmonds, Mahone, & Mostofsky, 2009).”

“Many studies report normal STM verbal storage (most commonly assessed with the Digits Forwards task) in children with ADHD (Lazar and Frank 1998, Williams et al. 2000, Rucklidge and Tannock 2002).”

“To date, processing speed has been shown to be a shared deficit in RD and ADHD, contributing to their comorbidity (McGrath et al.,2011; Rucklidge and Tannock 2002; Willcutt et al. 2010), and EF deficits may be another.”

“Present findings suggest that earlier proposals of under-arousal and poor state regulation in ADHD deserve renewed attention.”

“When these methods indicated subthreshold symptomatology, ADHD was ruled out.”