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The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test Revised Version: A Study with Normal Adults, and Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High‐functioning Autism
Abstract
In 1997 in this Journal we published the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test, as a measure of adult “mentalising”. Whilst that test succeeded in discriminating a group of adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high‐functioning autism (HFA) from controls, it suffered from several psychometric problems. In this paper these limitations are rectified by revising the test. The Revised Eyes Test was administered to a group of adults with AS or HFA ( N = 15) and again discriminated these from a large number of normal controls ( N = 239) drawn from different samples. In both the clinical and control groups the Eyes Test was inversely correlated with the Autism Spectrum Quotient (the AQ), a measure of autistic traits in adults of normal intelligence. The Revised Eyes Test has improved power to detect subtle individual differences in social sensitivity.
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In the citing paper
“Likewise, scores in the RMET are similar to those seen in other publications with autistic participants [41, 71].”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“deficits in the popular ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ task (RMET) [41] were unrelated to the presence of self-injury, its range or frequency or its use for the functional purpose of communicating with others”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“Another study also reported that 8 weeks of cognitive-based compassion training could significantly enhance the accuracy in inferring others' mental states in the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test [39] and increased the neural activation in the inferior frontal gyrus and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, which are important for the theory of mind [40].”
From Potential therapeutic effects of meditation for treating affective dysregulation (2014) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“These ToM tasks measure the ability to employ mental states in explanations and predictions of behavior and as such can be distinguished from tasks that may only require emotion recognition (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Oakley et al., 2016), or only require empathic sharing of mental states (e.g., Quesque et al., 2024; Reniers et al., 2011).”
From Longitudinal development of theory of mind in adolescence and its associations with fiction reading experience. (2025) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“While the Eyes Test is proposed to measure a single construct (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), as noted previously others have suggested that there might be subscales composed of those items that represent positive, negative, and neutral affect (Harkness et al., 2005; Maurage et al., 2011; Konrath et al., 2014).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Eyes Test was designed to measure the first stage of ToM attribution, which is identifying the relevant mental state of the stimulus (as opposed to the second stage; inferring the content of that mental state; see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Of note, this version of the Eyes Test is considered superior to earlier versions, largely on the grounds of reliability and validity evidence (see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test is a popular measure of individual differences in Theory of Mind capabilities (ToM; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The test distinguishes many clinical populations (most often individuals on the autistic spectrum) from unimpaired control participants in their ToM capabilities.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“With the exception of item 17, the most frequently chosen response option was the correct response option (see Table A1 in Supplementary Materials), which is supported by prior studies of normal populations (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Harkness et al., 2005).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Based on the effect size (d = 1.27) between ASD and control participants on the RMET reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001), we determined that a sample size of 19 participants per group would provide a power of 0.8 to detect group differences using an independent t test and α < .05.”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Its validity is supported by the poor performance of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) on the task (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001), a group that has known ToM impairments (Castelli, Frith, Happé, & Frith, 2002).”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The alexithymic group also performed significantly worse than the control participants reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001): N = 225, M = 27.02, SD = 3.67; independent samples t test: t(237) = 2.31, p = .021, d = 0.638, 95% CI for d [0.094, 1.180]”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“the original set of 36 items was split into two equally difficult halves (as in Samur et al., 2018, Experiment 3), based on the item accuracy reported for university students (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001)”
From The effects of reading narrative fiction on social and moral cognition (2021) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The present score after placebo administration is also slightly higher than ASD norms for RMET performance (61%).49”
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“Emotional PT allows us to understand others’ emotions and feelings (Harris & Lipian, 1989); Cognitive PT allows us to intuit others’ thoughts and intentions (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Eisenberg et al., 2001) and some authors consider the cognitive dimension of perspective taking 40 S.”
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“It has been suggested that complex social mental states involve attribution of belief or intention—an understanding of both emotional and cognitive mental states with social implications (Baron-Cohen et al, 1997 ; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, & Plumb, 2001 ).”
BackgroundKliemann, D., Rosenblau, G., Bölte, S., Heekeren, H. R., & Dziobek, I. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00376 · Cited by 70
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“The materials used in this study were taken from The Awareness of Social Inference Test (TASIT) [22] and ‘‘The Eyes in the Mind’’ Test [23].”
BackgroundMethodKemp, J., Berthel, M.-C., Dufour, A., Després, O., Henry, A., Namer, I. J., Musacchio, M., & Sellal, F. (2012) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2012.01.004 · Cited by 58
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“This has, in part, been attributed to deficiencies in self-referential cognition [43] as well as deficits in identifying cognitive and emotional states frequently referred to as ‘theory of mind’ [44,45].”
BackgroundA longitudinal analysis of neural regions involved in reading the mind in the eyes
Overgaauw, S., van Duijvenvoorde, A. C. K., Moor, B. G., & Crone, E. A. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsu095 · Cited by 61
“Participants between ages 10 and 16 years at the first measurement were tested again between 12 and 19 years and completed the RMET in the scanner on both occasions.”
InfluentialFisher, A. D., Castellini, G., Casale, H., Fanni, E., Bandini, E., Campone, B., Ferruccio, N., Maseroli, E., Boddi, V., Dèttore, D., et al. (2015) · The Journal of Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1111/jsm.13048 · Cited by 63
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“…total score); 12 — Stroop Test (Golden, 1975) (color–word); 12 — letter (FAS) (Spreen, 1990) and semantic (animal) (Carew et al., 1997) fluency tests; 14 — Eyes Task (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) (total correct score); 15- Continuous Performance Test (CPT) (Cegalis, 1991) (reaction time and…”
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A critical review of the eyes test as a measure of social-cognitive impairment
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“Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (Eyes Test; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
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“…www.frontiersin.org December 2014 | Volume 8 | Article 423 | 1 BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE person’s expressed experience was acted to produce the stimuli set or (ii) the target experience was real but the magnitude of the experience was not recorded (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; McDonald et al., 2003).”
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BackgroundNess, S. L., Manyakov, N. V., Bangerter, A., Lewin, D., Jagannatha, S., Boice, M., Skalkin, A., Dawson, G., Janvier, Y. M., Goodwin, M. S., et al. (2017) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00517 · Cited by 58
“Involved are tests of information processing speed and fine motor skills, visual attention, visual recognition memory, working memory, and emotion processing, to assess ASD-associated neurocognitive deficits (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Surowiecki et al., 2002; Bavin et al., 2005; Mollica et al., 2005; Crutcher et al.,…”
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“RMET was the only measure of mental state decoding aspect of ToM (ToM-decoding) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
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“Task 9: The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task (Advanced ToM; Baron-Cohen et al, 2001 ).”
BackgroundCastro, M. N., Vigo, D. E., Chu, E. M.-Y., Fahrer, R. D., de Achával, D., Costanzo, E. Y., Leiguarda, R. C., Nogués, M. A., Cardinali, D. P., & Guinjoan, S. M. (2009) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2008.12.026 · Cited by 57
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“Third, certain social cognition abilities may differ between males and females (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
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“This paradigm has been used in previous fMRI studies (Russell et al. 2000; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001) and addresses the ability to infer other people’s mental states using only information from 36 pairs of eyes.”
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Ciccia, A., Meulenbroek, P. A., & Turkstra, L. S. (2009) · Topics in Language Disorders · doi:10.1097/tld.0b013e3181b53211 · Cited by 70
Contribution of religion/spirituality and major depressive disorder to altruism
Neugebauer, R., WICKRAMARATNE, P. J., Svob, C., McClintock, C. H., Gameroff, M. J., Miller, L., & Conway, A. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.10.031 · Cited by 57
Social anxiety in adults with autism: a qualitative study
Spain, D., Yarar, E., & Happe, F. G. E. (2020) · International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1080/17482631.2020.1803669 · Cited by 58
Ghrear, S. E., Baimel, A., Haddock, T., & Birch, S. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0244141 · Cited by 58
“To examine the developmental trajectory of different Theory of Mind abilities researchers have designed various measures such as the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test [16], Belief-Desire Reasoning task [17], Strange Stories [18], among many others (e.”
MethodBayless, S. J., Glover, M., Taylor, M. J., & Itier, R. J. (2011) · Visual Cognition · doi:10.1080/13506285.2011.552895 · Cited by 56
“The findings suggest that despite the eye region conveying emotional cues (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), an isolated eye region taken from emotional facial expressions is not sufficient to elicit modulation of gaze cueing by emotion.”
Cognition, Empathy, and Sexual Offending
Barnett, G. D., & Mann, R. E. (2012) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/1524838012467857 · Cited by 58
Jaime, M., McMahon, C. M., Davidson, B. C., Newell, L. C., Mundy, P. C., & Henderson, H. A. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2667-3 · Cited by 57
Social anxiety in adult males with autism spectrum disorders
Spain, D., Happe, F. G. E., Johnston, P., Campbell, M., Sin, J., Daly, E., Ecker, C., Anson, M., Chaplin, E., Glaser, K., et al. (2016) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2016.08.002 · Cited by 57
“…(such as impairments in socio-emotional processing) could be implicated in anxiety development in ASD (White et al., 2009), for example, impairments in the ability to recognise and understand others’ thoughts and intentions (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001a), may render social interactions difficult.”
BackgroundMethodGreene, J. P., Erickson, H. H., Watson, A. R., & Beck, M. I. (2018) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x18761034 · Cited by 59
“For example, after the first two plays, we changed the survey to add a scale designed to measure students’ SPT (Gehlbach, 2004; Gehlbach et al., 2008) while dropping the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, & Raste, 2001).”
BackgroundPallathra, A. A., Calkins, M. E., Parish‐Morris, J., Maddox, B. B., Perez, L. S., Miller, J. S., Gur, R. C., Mandell, D. S., Schultz, R. T., & Brodkin, E. S. (2018) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1910 · Cited by 59
Perceptually-guided deep neural networks for ego-action prediction: Object grasping
González-Díaz, I., Benois‐Pineau, J., Domenger, J., Cattaert, D., & de Rugy, A. (2018) · Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1016/j.patcog.2018.11.013 · Cited by 56
Different Patterns of Theory of Mind Impairment in Mild Cognitive Impairment
Moreau, N., Rauzy, S., Bonnefoi, B., Renié, L., Martinez-Almoyna, L., Viallet, F., & Champagne‐Lavau, M. (2015) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-143021 · Cited by 62
Murray, A. L., Booth, T., McKenzie, K., & Kuenssberg, R. (2015) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000215 · Cited by 56
Movement cues aid face recognition in developmental prosopagnosia.
Bennetts, R. J., Butcher, N. L., Lander, K., et al. (2015) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000187 · Cited by 56
Sniff and mimic–Intranasal oxytocin increases facial mimicry in a sample of men
Korb, S., Malsert, J., Strathearn, L., Vuilleumier, P., & Niedenthal, P. (2016) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.06.003 · Cited by 54
“Some findings point to improvements in emotion recognition and social functioning, for example on the Reading-the-Mind-in-the-Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), which requires the recognition of emotional and cognitive states based solely on the part of faces including and surrounding the eyes (Anagnostou et al., 2…”
BackgroundInfluentialErdeniz, B., Serin, E., İbadi, Y., & Taş, C. (2017) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2017.09.011 · Cited by 54
Effects of mask-wearing on social anxiety: an exploratory review
Saint, S. A., & Moscovitch, D. A. (2021) · Anxiety, Stress, & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2021.1929936 · Cited by 54
“…with higher levels of trait SA perform more poorly than healthy participants when completing the Reading the Mind in the Eyes (MIE) task (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), in which participants are required to identify a displayed emotion from only a set of eyes via a forcedchoice paradigm…”
BackgroundA comparison of methods for measuring camouflaging in autism
Hannon, B., Mandy, W., & Hull, L. (2022) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2850 · Cited by 56
“The authors also used the RMET-C scores (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) to operationalize compensatory camouflaging.”
MethodDynamic fearful gaze does not enhance attention orienting in individuals with Asperger’s disorder
Uono, S., Sato, W., & Toichi, M. (2009) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.08.015 · Cited by 55
“Impaired integration of emotional expression and gaze direction in the Asperger group is in line with previous studies investigating social cognition (Baron-Cohen, Jolliffe, et al., 1997; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, et al., 1997).”
ResultBodner, K. E., Engelhardt, C. R., Minshew, N. J., & Williams, D. L. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2436-3 · Cited by 69
“Participants also completed the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test-Revised (Adult or Child Version; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
Methodvan Soelen, I. L. C., Brouwer, R. M., Peper, J. S., van Leeuwen, M., Koenis, M. M. G., van Beijsterveldt, T. C. E. M., Swagerman, S. C., Kahn, R. S., Pol, H. E. H., & Boomsma, D. I. (2012) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2012.4 · Cited by 56
“…number of tests that exhibited low reliability and/or limited genetic in-fluences at baseline were not repeated at follow-up: Tower of Hanoi (Simon, 1975), Eriksen flanker task (Eriksen & Eriksen, 1974; Eriksen & Schultz, 1979), and the ‘Read-ing the Mind in the Eyes’ task (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
Social reasoning in Tourette syndrome
Eddy, C., Mitchell, I., Beck, S. R., Cavanna, A., & Rickards, H. (2011) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2010.538213 · Cited by 54
“Participants in the current study completed a version of the UG, in addition to versions of the SCET (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2007), the RMET (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), and a humorous cartoons task.”
MethodInfluentialKnowing What Others Know, Feeling What Others Feel
Hassenstab, J. J., Dziobek, I., Rogers, K., Wolf, O. T., & Convit, A. J. (2007) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000253794.74540.2d · Cited by 59
“The Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) assesses the ability to infer the mental state of a person solely from the information provided in a picture of that person’s eyes.”
BackgroundMethodSharp, C., & Vanwoerden, S. (2013) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2014.28.1.78 · Cited by 67
“The CET (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) was adapted from the adult Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test developed by Baron-Cohen et al. (1997).”
BackgroundMethodRezlescu, C., Pitcher, D., & Duchaine, B. (2012) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643294.2012.749223 · Cited by 55
Mind-Reading Ability and Structural Connectivity Changes in Aging
Cabinio, M., Rossetto, F., Blasi, V., Savazzi, F. A., Castelli, I., Massaro, D., Valle, A., Nemni, R., Clerici, M., Marchetti, A., et al. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01808 · Cited by 59
“In this context, examples include the ability of engaging in recursive thinking, such as first order false belief reasoning around four years of age and second order false belief reasoning around 8–10 years (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodJarskog, L. F., Pedersen, C. A., Johnson, J. L., Hamer, R. M., Rau, S. W., Elliott, T., & Penn, D. L. (2017) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2017.01.008 · Cited by 56
“Reading theMind in the Eyes Test (Eyes Test) – consists of 36 photographs and participants are asked to guess themental state from among 4 choice words (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
MethodPsychological causes of autobiographical amnesia: A study of 28 cases
Staniloiu, A., Markowitsch, H. J., & Kordon, A. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.10.017 · Cited by 55
Romero‐Martínez, Á., Lila, M., Enrique Gracia, A., & Moya‐Albiol, L. (2018) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12204 · Cited by 55
Pitteri, M., Genova, H. M., Lengenfelder, J., DeLuca, J., Ziccardi, S., Rossi, V., & Calabrese, M. (2019) · Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.msard.2019.01.030 · Cited by 54
Carpita, B., Carmassi, C., Calderoni, S., Muti, D., Muscarella, A., Massimetti, G., Cremone, I. M., Gesi, C., Conti, E., Muratori, F., et al. (2019) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852919001615 · Cited by 59
Metadata
- Authors
- Baron‐Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 241-251
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- OpenAlex
- W4294333904
- Cited by
- 4,555
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 223 · 2025: 261 · 2024: 273 · 2023: 268 · 2022: 303 · 2021: 350 · 2020: 381 · 2019: 320 · 2018: 299 · 2017: 292 · 2016: 230 · 2015: 262 · 2014: 193 · 2013: 211 · 2012: 143
- FWCI
- 5.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Keywords
- Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, mentalization, theory of mind, Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism, autism spectrum disorder, test revision, psychometric properties, Autism Spectrum Quotient, autistic traits, social sensitivity, adults
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